语言学总结

The first part: theory (选择题)

Chapter one：Invitations to Linguistics语言学导论

1.2 Some fundamental views about Language: (8点考其中一点)(ppt4)

1, Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.

2, Language operates by rules.

3, All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics.（语音系统、词汇语法系统、语义系统）4, Everyone speaks a dialect.

5,Language slowly changes

6, Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.

7, Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.,

8, Writing is derivative of speech.

The definition of language (ppt7)

Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and des ires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”----Edward Sapir (1884-1939):Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)

Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-audit ory arbitrary symbols.”

--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)

“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”

--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)

Design Features of Language

Language distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.

Features of language: 1)arbitrariness['ɑ:bitrərinis]任意性2),Duality [dju(:)'æliti],二层性3),creativity,创造性4),displacement，移位性（简答题，不用展开）

What is displacement移位性？

Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. （移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间。观点。）Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand con cepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty. （移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力是人类受益无穷。一旦我们谈到远离现实之物，我们需要具备理解“非实体”概念的能力，如“真”和“美”）

Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language,that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.（韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能）E:P10中：P8

索绪尔（Saussure）是现代语言学的奠基人之一，他的学说源于界划Langue Language（语言）和Parole speech （言语）活动的异质性。韩礼德（Halliday）是系统功能语法的创始人。乔姆斯基（Chomsky）是转换生成语法（TG Grammar）的创始人。布卢姆菲尔德（Bloomfield）是美国结构主义语言学的创始人。

Ideational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.概念功能构建经验模型和逻辑关系，人际功能反应社会关系，语篇功能建立语言和语境的关系

Performative function 施为功能

This concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the back-bone of pragmatics (Chapter 8).（施为概念来自奥斯汀和塞尔为代表的语言学家对语言的哲学研究，他们的理论现在成为语用学的支柱）For example,

I now declare the meeting open.

I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.

The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. （施为功能主要为了改变人的社会地位，如婚姻、判刑、为孩子祈福、下水仪式上对船的命名、诅咒敌人等行为。）

The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.（在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。）英P11，中P9

Phonetics语音学Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.（语言学研究语音，包括言语的产生（及语音如何被发出、传递和感知），对语音、词语和连续言语等的描写和分类）（不考，辅助理解）We can approach it on various levels.

（At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy and physiology. We can study organs such as tongue and larynx and their functions in the production of speech.

At another level, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds. This is the domain of articulatory phonetics.）（不考，辅助理解）We can also investigate the properties of the sound waves —acoustic phonetics.（调查声波的性质，这是声学语音学的范畴）

As speech is intended to be heard or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave —auditory phonetics（讲话的目的是要被听到和被理解，因此还有必要研究听者如何分析和处理收到的声波，这是听觉语音学的范畴）

The definition of Phonology（音系学）:

Phonology [fəu'nɔlədʒi] studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. (音系学研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及音节的形式。音系学以音位为起点来处理语言的语音系统，音位是语言中能够区分意义的最小的语音单位。)