心理学导论 吴国宏

心理学导论【绪论】Psychology’s current perspectives：Neuroscience神经科学Evolutionary 进化论Behavior genetics 行为基因Psychodynamic 心理动力学Behavioral行为主义Cognitive 认知Social-cultural 社会文化知觉与常识的局限性Believe in Intuition and Common Sense, or a Scientific Approach?·Common sense describes what has happened more easily than it predicts what will happen.·Hindsight bias — the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. ( I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) —— We’re all after-the-fact-pundits（事后聪明式的偏差。

我们都是事后诸葛亮。

）-·Overconfidence 过度自信The reason — stems partly from our human tendency to seek information that confirms our ideas.·Placebo effect: 安慰剂效应experimental results caused by expectations alone.·Double-blind procedure 双盲Both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have receivedd the treatment or a placeboThe Scientific AttitudeCuriosityCurious Skepticism — being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullibleWhat do you mean?How do you know?Critical Thinking1.What am I being asked to believed or accept?2.What evidence is available to support the assertion?3.Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence?4.What additional evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives?5.What conclusions are most reasonable?The Scientific MethodTheory — simplicityHypothesis & replication 假设与重复Description 描述The case study 个案研究The survey 调查法Naturalistic Observation 自然观察Correlation 相关（虚假相关）— correlation may hint at possible cause-effect relationships. But it does not provide a causal explanation.Procedures of an standard researchA very simple theory, inspired by everyday observations generated hypotheses.These predictions were confirmed by the correlation between ~ and ~Which in turn stimulated experiments that examined causation.【A Brief Review of Chapter 4 & 5 in the Textbook：Nature, Nurture and Life-span Development】【第三章——行为的天性与教养】Evolutionary Psychology·The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection.·Reproduction and survival·Examples and criticisms.Behavior Genetics 行为遗传学Studying Gene Effects on Behavior1.Family studies—look for similarities over generations of a family in traits suspected to have agenetic basis.2.Adoption studies—adopted children are compared both with their biological parents andwith their adoptive parents; they may also be compared with siblings in the adoptive home. 3.Twin studies—Monozygotic (identical同卵) twins and dizygotic (fraternal异卵) twins arecompared in terms of they similarity on traits suspected to have a gen天etic basis.bined twin and adoption studies—Compares twins separated early in life and raised indifferent adoptive homes.The Role of Parents·Your examples?——a security base, or a place you want to leave?·The importance of empathic knowing·The environment parents can provide: physically and psychologically·Parenting style: warmth × control（陪伴、敏感、反应，树立规矩）二纬度Authoritative（√，√）权威式Authoritarian（×，√）独裁式Permissive（√，×）溺爱式uninvolved (disengaged)（×，×）无关式HeritabilityThe proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of population and environments studied.1.Does not tell us about the possible effects of improvements in the environment.2.Tell us nothing for certain about comparisons between samples that were not included inthe heritability estimate.遗传力即不同遗传基因所造成的个体差异度，指的是人与人之间的差异有多大程度上可归于遗传。

（例：智力的遗传力为50％，那就是指可观察到的变异的50％可归于遗传的影响。

）随着环境相似度增高，遗传作为个体差异的起因也变得更加重要。

Nature and nurture work together.环境影响出生前的环境：教养始于子宫。

与同胎盘的同卵双生子相比，有不同胎盘的同卵双生子心理特质上的相似度更低。

早期经历：罗森茨威格和克雷奇，饲养老鼠的环境。

儿童时期对于神经联接的建立——用进废退。

同伴影响：“选择效应。

”文化：Cultural Influence·Developing Through the Life SpanCognitive development—what matters more?·Social DevelopmentAttachment：Phase（0-2月，未分化；3-7月，社会反映分化期；8-24月，密集依恋期）; stranger anxiety (wariness of strangers) & separation protest; A/B/C/D; child, adult, and agedSelf：Self-conception/self-evaluation/self-control;personal agency & self-efficacyGender-role development·性别的天性：从遗传上讲，性别间的这些差异源于不同的性染色体；从生理学上讲，这些差异源于性激素的不同浓度。

·性别的教养：性别也是一种社会建构。

·性别与儿童教育【Learning】【第八章——学习】Instinct·Salmon·Weaver Bird·Reflex—a simple innate behavior·Fixed action pattern (FAP)固定行为模式—a ~ is an instinctual chain of movements found in all members of a species.It prepare animals to meet major needs in their lives.Question: Do Human Have Instincts?·Human have reflexes·But most psychologist reject the idea that human have instincts — species specific·Learning vs. InstinctOur learning gives us more flexibility and adaptabilityLearning: The Definitions·A relatively permanent change due to experience (text book)·The modification through experience of pre-existing behavior and understanding (Psychology 7th edition 2006)·A process that results in a relatively consistent change in behavior or behavior potential, is based on experience (Psychology and Life 18th edition)Keys to Learning·Change (potential)·Experience excludes temporary change caused by fatigue, maturation, disease, injury, or drugs Maturation is the sequential unfolding of inherited predispositions(倾向).·Permanent, enduring, consistent·Active or passive?Associative Learning 联想学习Learning that certain events occur together. The events may two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).操作条件反射经典条件化作用Behaviorism 行为主义·The view that psychology1.should be an objective science2.studies behavior without reference to mental processesS – R（stimuli - reflex）去除当中的意识部分·Describe, understand, predict and controlClassical (Pavlovian, Respondent) Conditioning经典条件化作用（经典性条件反射作用）Pavlov’s Experiments·UCS（非条件刺激）→UCR（非条件反应）·Neutral Stimulus (NS)（中性刺激）→ No response·NS+UCS → UCRNS can produce the target R independently, so it is called CS（条件刺激）, and the former UCS→UCR·CS → CR（条件反应）Elements of Classical Conditioning·Acquisition 习得·Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery 消退＆自然恢复·Stimulus Generalization 泛化in the experiment ; phobia ; babyface·Stimulus Discrimination 分化in the experiment; sounds of parentsSecond-order conditioning 次级条件反射·Lemonade powder + Pavlov → Salivation·望梅止渴·Succulent → how to learn a new word efficiently·品牌Factors Influence Classical C.·The intensity of the UCS (reinforcer)·The numbers of parings of the CS and the UCS·Timing1.Delayed C.—CS is presented first and remain at least until the onset of the UCS (1 second interval is the best)——produces strong C.2.Trace C.—CS is presented first and ends before the onset of the UCSThis requires that memory trace of the CS be retained until the onset of the UCS——moderately strong C.3.Simultaneous C.（同时）—the CS and UCS begin together——weak C.4.Backword C.（）—the onset of the UCS precedes the onset of the CS——The least effective ·New directionsApplications of Classical C.·Immune system (Ader & Koon,1982)·Explaining taste aversion·Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs)John B. Watson and his classical experiment on phobia阿尔伯特和小白鼠·In daily life·Advertisement·Learning to Be a Drug Addict Siegel, S. (1982, 1984, 2005)·Trauma as Classical ConditioningOperant (Instrumental) Conditioning操作性条件反射作用Definition—A form of learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable, depending on its consequences.·Respondent behavior·Operant behavior — behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.、Skinner’s Experiment·Law of effect·Skinner Box·Comparison of Classical C. & Operant C.…………Principles of Reinforcement·Reinforcer·Positive reinforcer·Negative reinforcer —a behavior that brings about the removal of an aversive stimulus becomes more likely to occur in the future.Escape and Avoidance L.负强化物VS惩罚：负强化和惩罚都需运用厌恶刺激，两者的区别在于，惩罚是施加厌恶刺激，而负强化是除去厌恶刺激。