第二语言习得概论ellis全文翻译

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第一章 第二语言习得概论(完全版)

第一章 第二语言习得概论(完全版)

二、第二语言习得研究范畴
三、第二语言习得研究与语言学
四、第二语言习得研究与心理学
五、第二语言习得研究与心理语言学
六、第二语言习得与语言教学
二、第二语言习得研究与语言学
语言学 联 系 第二语言习得
第二语言习得 = 语言学的消费者 第二语言习得 = 语言学的贡献者
消费者?
贡献者?
关于“至于”的思考
A
至于 B(NP) , C
二、第二语言习得研究与语言学
语言学 联 系 第二语言习得
第二语言习得 = 语言学的消费者 第二语言习得 = 语言学的贡献者
二、第二语言习得研究与语言学
语言学
联 系
第二语言习得
第二语言习得 = 语言学的消费者 第二语言习得 = 语言学的贡献者
母语者的语言系统 学习者的语言系统、学习者、 习得过程与机制
一、母语 VS 目的语
2、目的语(target language)
• “目的语”,也称“目标语”,一般是指学习
者正在学习的语言。
• 正在学习的母语、第二语言、第三语言……
• 与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
• Eg.在中国学习汉语
在美国学习汉语
二、第一语言 VS 第二语言
• 母语和第一语言 母语:所属种族、社团使用 第一语言:语言习得的顺序 一般母语=第一语言
三、习得 VS 学习
• 隐性知识和显性知识之间是否可以转化?
• 无接口(Krashen 早期观点)
• 有接口(Bialystock) • 什么样的教学有助于知识的转化?
四、第二语言习得 VS 外语习得
主要依据学习者学习目的语的社会环境来区分
1、第二语言习得( Second language acquisition)

第二语言习得理论阅读书目

第二语言习得理论阅读书目

第二语言习得理论阅读书目1. Ellis.R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M].Oxford Univ.Press,1994.2. Ellis.R.Understanding Second Language Acquisition[M].Oxford Univ.Press,1985.3.Krashen.S. & T.Terrell., The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom[M],Oxford:Pergamon,1983.4.Krashen.S. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition[M], New York: PPergamon Press[M],, 1982.5. Brown. H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall, Inc[M],1987.6.Cook. V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Beijing: Foreign LanguageTeaching and Research Press[M], 2000.rsen-Freeman,D.and M.Long.An Introduction to Second Language AcquisitionResearch. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press[M], 2000.8.Littlewood.W. Foreign and Second Language Learning. Beijing: Foreign Language Teachingand Research Press[M], 2000.9.O’Malley.J & Chamot. A. U. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. CambridgeCambridge University Press[M], 1990.10.Ramirez.A. Creating Contexts for Second Language Acquisition. New York: LongmanPublishers[M], 1995.11.Seliger.H. & Shohamy.E. Second Language Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress[M], 1989.12.12. Stern. H. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress[M], 1983.13.蒋祖康,第二语言习得研究,北京:外语教学与研究出版社[M],1999。

rod ellis

rod ellis

Bio data:Chair, Graduate School of Education; Professor, Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages; Applied Language studies and Linguistics dept.Professor Ellis, a renowed linguist, received his Doctorate from the University of London and his Master of Education from the University of Bristol. A former Professor at Temple University both in Japan and the US. Prof. Ellis has taught in numerous positions in England, Japan, the US, Zambia and New Zealand. Dr. Ellis who is known as the “Father of Second Language Acquisition”, has served as the Director of the Institute of Language Teaching and Learning at the University of Auckland. Author of numerous student and teacher training textbooks for Prentice Hall and Oxford University Press, Prof. Ellis’s textbooks on Second Language Acquisition and Grammar are core textbooks in TESOL and Linguistics programs around the world.From a paper Principles of Instructed Language Learning(待查)Rod ELLIS新西兰奥克兰大学教授Prof.of University of Auckland, New ZealandRod Ellis is currently Professor in the Department of Applied Language Studies and Linguistics, University of Auckland, where he teaches postgraduate courses on second language acquisition, individual differences in language learning and task-based teaching. His published work includes articles and books on second language acquisition, language teaching and teacher education. His books include Understanding Second Language Acquisition (BAAL Prize 1986) and The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Duke of Edinburgh prize 1995). More recently, Task-Based Learning and Teaching early (2003) and (with Gary Barkhuizen) Analyzing Learner Language in (2005) ), were published by Oxford University Press. He has also published several English language textbooks, including Impact Grammar (Pearson: Longman). He is also currently editor of the journal Language Teaching Research. In addition to his current position in New Zealand, he has worked in schools in Spain and Zambia and in universities in the United Kingdom, Japan and the United States. He has also conducted numerous consultancies and seminars throughout the world. Rod Ellis ,上海外国语大学,受聘为国家教育部第八批“长江学者奖励计划讲座教授”,聘任岗位:外国语言文学。

第二语言习得概论ellis全文翻译

第二语言习得概论ellis全文翻译

第二语言习得概论Rod Ellis 全书汉语翻译引言写这本书的目的是为了全面的解释第二语言习得,我们尽可能的描述理论,而不是提出理论,所以,本书不会有意识地凸显任何一种二语习得的方法或理论作为已经被认可的看法。

其实,现在做到这一点是不可能的,因为二语习得研究还处于初期阶段,仍有许多问题需要解决,当然,我们不可能完全把描述和解说隔裂开来,所以,对于我所选择描述的理论解释时,不可避免地带有我自己的观点倾向。

这本书写给两类读者,一类是二语习得课程的初学者,他们想整体了解二语研究的现状。

二是想明白学习者怎么学习第二语言的教师。

因为是二语习得的初级教程,第一章列出了有关第二语言习得的主要理论观点。

接下来的几章各自阐述一方面的理论观点,然后第10章汇总所有理论以对二语习得的不同理论进行全面研究。

每章后面提供可进一步阅读的参考建议,这可以指引学生进入二语研究快速发展的前沿领域。

但是,应该想到许多读者是第二语言或外语老师,所以本书也应该让他们对课内和课外的二语习得是怎么发生的有一个清楚的认识。

按传统,是教师决定课堂上学生学习什么和按什么顺序学习。

例如,语言教科书就把既定的内容顺序强加给学生学习,这些课本设想书中设计的语言特征出现的顺序和学生能够接受并习得的顺序相同。

同样,教师在制定教学计划时也会这样做,他们认为精选学习内容和把教学内容排序将有利于教学。

但是除非我们确定教师教学计划和学生的习得顺序相符,不然我们不能确定教学内容可以直接有利于学生学习。

教师不仅决定教学的内容和结构,他们也决定第二语言怎么教,他们决定教学法,他们决定是否操练,操练多少,是否纠错和什么时间纠错以及纠到什么程度,教师们根据他们所选择的教学法来处理语言学习过程。

但是,又一次,我们不能确保教师选择的教学法规则和学习者学习语言的进程是相符的,例如,教师可能决定关注语法的正确性,而学习者可能只关注自己的意思是否被理解,不在乎语法是否正确,教师可能关注操练灌输一个一个语言点,而学生却可能整体上把握语言问题,逐渐的掌握在某一相同的时间处理各种语言点的能力,学生所进行的学习可能不是教师的教学法所设想的。

understanding second language acquisition中文版 -回复

understanding second language acquisition中文版 -回复

understanding second language acquisition中文版-回复“理解第二语言习得”是一个复杂而广泛的研究领域,涉及到了许多不同的因素和理论。

在这篇文章中,我们将一步一步回答关于第二语言习得的问题,并探讨一些相关的研究和实践。

第一步:第二语言习得与第一语言习得的区别首先,我们需要明确第二语言习得与第一语言习得之间的区别。

第一语言习得是指人们在幼年时期无意识地习得的语言,这是一种自然而然的过程。

而第二语言习得则指在成年或青少年时期有目的地学习的第二种语言。

这种习得过程可能会受到第一语言的干扰,因为学习者常常会将第二语言与第一语言产生联系。

第二步:第二语言习得的理论接下来,我们需要了解一些关于第二语言习得的理论。

其中最著名的理论之一是斯汤加提出的“监控模型”。

这个模型指出,学习者在学习第二语言时不仅仅依靠外界的输入,还会使用他们的先前知识和语法规则来“监控”和纠正自己的语言产出。

除了监控模型,还有其他的理论,如克鲁什-斯克拉芙斯基的互动性认知模型和斯莱申格的输出假说。

这些理论提出了不同的观点和解释,以帮助我们更好地理解第二语言习得的过程。

第三步:影响第二语言习得的因素了解第二语言习得的理论后,我们需要看一些影响第二语言习得的因素。

首先是心理因素,如学习者的动机、自信心和态度等。

这些因素可以影响学习者的学习兴趣和投入程度。

其次是社会因素,如学习者所处的语言环境、有无机会使用第二语言的机会等。

一个沉浸式的语言环境可以促使学习者更快地习得第二语言。

还有一些个体差异的因素,如学习者的年龄、学习策略和学习经验等。

这些因素可能会影响学习者对第二语言的习得速度和方式。

第四步:有效的第二语言习得策略在第二语言习得的过程中,学习者可以采用一些有效的学习策略来提高自己的语言水平。

比如,他们可以通过频繁的输入和输出来增加对目标语言的接触和实践。

此外,他们还可以利用记忆技巧、合作学习和自主学习等策略来巩固和加强语言知识。

第二语言习得 (中文版)

第二语言习得 (中文版)

第二语言习得 (中文版)第二语言习得是指在已经谙熟自己的母语后开始接触学习另外的一门语言。

这种语言习得与母语习得不同,因为母语即是个人的文化和生活背景的一部分,而第二语言则需要通过各种学习环境、工具和方法才能够完成。

第二语言的学习有其特殊性,因为它需要不同的學習技巧或是包含不同的学习过程。

而且,因为第二语言的习得通常是在成人的时期开始的,所以这种语言习得需要分析并改变人的思维方式习惯。

就像一个中国人学英语,需要用到英语的语法规则,同时又逃不掉中文惯用的方式和表达方式。

为了掌握第二语言,我们需要通过各种途径去了解和学习它。

这些途径包括学校、网上资源、语言交流等等。

最好的途径当然是去一个使用第二语言的国家,并在那里生活,这样可以最好的体验到语言的环境,也能适应新的生活和文化。

对于那些没有这个机会的人,透过各种在线资源来学习和练习也是同样有效的。

第二语言习得可能会改变我们的思维方式和认知水平。

通过学习这门外语,我们可以认识不同的语言文化和习惯,扩宽自己的眼界。

同时,通过不同语言的丰富表达方式,也可以更加深入的理解和描述世界。

第二语言的习得也会对我们的就业竞争力产生积极影响。

因为在全球化的时代背景下,英语已经成为商业和学术合作的重要语言。

如果我们能够掌握这种第二语言,我们的就业机会和工作效率也会更高。

总之,第二语言习得是非常重要和有价值的。

这种习得需要时间、耐心和努力。

不过通过积极的学习和交流,我们能够顺利掌握一门外语,并获得更多的机会和认知。

第二语言习得的过程通常被认为是相对困难的,原因在于以下一些方面。

首先,个体的母语背景、学习历史和文化习惯对于学习另一门语言的效果产生重要影响。

这些因素往往会阻碍个体从母语中摆脱出来进入到新学习的语言环境中。

其次,学习语言的词汇和语法规则是一个长期而复杂的过程。

除了需要内化表达方式外,学习者还需要理解并适应新的文化习惯和社会背景。

而这种适应需要耗费大量的时间和精力。

二语习得引论翻译笔记-第五章

二语习得引论翻译笔记-第五章

第五章SLA与社会环境【真题:语言社团;反馈】交际能力P100言语沟通民俗学:交际能力:一个说话者在一个特定的语言社团里知道自己需要说什么。

不但包括词汇语音语法结构,还要知道什么时候说对谁说和在既定环境里适当的表达。

还包括说话的人应该指导社会文化方面的知识,应该具有保证顺利地和别人交流的能力。

语言社团:一组人;用同一种语言;因此,多语者属于多个语言社团。

非本族语的人讲话和本地人相差很大,即使他们属于同一个语言社团。

比如包括语言结构组合的不同,对话、写作等规则使用不同,同一个词汇意思不同。

P101外语[FL]:在当地环境下学习二语,没机会与该语言的语言社团进行互动(除非出国),且没有机会完全融入该外语的社会,学习这种语言大多是课业要求。

附加语[AL]P102微观社会因素学习者语言的变异社会语言学家认为语言的变异是指在语言的产出过程中,把语言的不系统的不规则的变化当做次于语言系统规则模式的变异性特点。

交际环境的多个维度:语言学环境:语言形式和功能的成分心理学环境:在语言加工过程中,起始阶段要倾注多少注意力,从控制加工到自动化加工;微观社会环境:环境与互动特征与交际部分相关,并在此过程中被产出、翻译、协商宏观因素:政治背景下,哪种语言应该学习,社会对某种语言的态度。

适应理论[accommodation theory]:说话者会随着说话对象的说话方式改变自己的语调难易。

工作地点影响语言输入的性质和群体认同性。

自然变异:中介语的产物,是习得二语语法的必要步骤Ellis 变异的性质随着学习二语的深入而变化:1.一个简单的形式被用于多种功能2.其它形式一开始会用于中介语3.多种形式被系统化地使用4.无目的的形式被摘除,自由变异的清楚使中介语更加高效P105语言的输入与互动P106一、自然输入的修改语言输入对一语二语都是绝对必要的。

外国式谈话[foreigner talk]:一语学习者对二语学习者说话时调整说话的语气速度来适应二语者的语言。

第二语言习得的基础 翻译

第二语言习得的基础 翻译

《二语习得导论》第二章第二语言习得研究的基础章节预览我们中的大多数,尤其是以英语为主要语言的国家,即没有意识到多语使用在当今世界是多么的盛行,也没有意识到二语习得的普遍性。

本章我们首先概述下这些观点,然后我们去探索语言学习的本质,一语习得和二语习得一些基本的相似点和差异,以及“语言习得的逻辑问题”。

对这些问题的理解是我们在之后的章节中对二语习得的语言学,心理学和社会视角进行讨论的基础。

理论框架的研究和二语习得最重要的兴趣焦点,包括三个中的每一个视角我们都予以遵循。

(p8)世界第二语言多语习得者是指习得两种或者两种以上语言的能力的人。

(一些语言学家和心理学家称呼具有两种语言能力的人为双语习得者,称呼具有多种语言能力的人为多语习得者。

但我们在此不做这样的区别。

)单语习得者是指只具有一种语言能力的人。

没有一个人可以肯定的说,有多少人是多语习得者,但合理的估计是,至少有世界一半的人口都属于这个类别。

因此,多语习得并不是一个罕见的现象,而是一种在世界大部分地区都会存在的普遍现象。

根据FrançoisGrosjean的观点,这种现象早在人类没有任何语言记录的早期就已经存在了。

多语现象几乎存在于世界上的每一个国家,所以的社会阶层,以及不同的年龄段中。

事实上,很难找到一个真正的单语言社会。

这不仅仅是一个世界范围内的双语现象,它甚至在人类历史上语言出现之初就已经存在。

这很可能是真实的,因为没有任何一个语言群里隔离与其他语言群体而独立存在,人类语言历史上充满着因为语言接触而造成一些形式的双语现象的例子。

(1982:1)鉴于对当前形势的报道,G. Richard Tucker 总结说,世界上双语或多语习得者要比单语人群多很多。

另外,比起在常规部门只学习一种语言的儿童,世界各地更多的孩子们已经获得或者继续学习来获得习得多种语言的能力。

(1999:1)鉴于多语种人群的规模和分布如此广泛,绝大多数科学家竟然把注意力只集中在单语言环境和第一语言习得上,这多少让人有点惊讶。

第二语言习得1

第二语言习得1

(2) Key words • 1.SLA vs FLA (Second Language Acquisition vs First Language Acquisition) • 2. Second Language Acquisition vs Foreign Language Acquisition
• 语言能力可以使成人像儿童一样很快就 学会一种语言。 • 二语习得:原则—参数-重新定值 • 普遍语法是可及的
教学和研究实例:
黄月圆等,2005(汉语学习,第5期):反身代词在英语中只能和最近 的词语发生关系,汉语是“长距离反身代词”。 其特征之一是,在双宾语中,反身代词倾向于指代主语。
Tom thinks that John asks Mike to look at himself.
• 研究领域二:学习者外部因素研究 (learner external factors ) • (1)social context • (2)input and interaction
• 学习者内部习得机制研究(learner internal mechanisms ) ; • (1)L1 transfer • (2)learning processes • (3)communication strategies • (4)knowledge of linguistic universals
第二语言习得 概述
绪论:第二语言习得的定义和理论框架
(1)Ellis (1985)的定义 : • Second language acquisition refers to the subconscious or conscious processes by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural or a tutored setting. (p. 6)

第二语言习得概论笔记

第二语言习得概论笔记

第二语言习得概论笔记第二语言习得second language acquisition SLA 第二语言L2 第一语言习得 first language acquisition 第一语言L1 语言能力 competence 语言行为performance 第一语言对第二语言的学习会干扰或促进,这个过程叫语言迁移language transfer.分为正迁移和负迁移。

但有争议。

对比分析contrastive analysis L2=L1?错误分析法。

只要当语言学习者语言中的错误是系统性的——就是说,他们的出现在某种程度上是由规律的——错误才是有The role of the first language (Ch. 2)language transfer (positive & negative)contrastive analysis hypothesisother roles for the L1 in SLAThe 'natural' route of development (Ch. 3)L2 = L1 hypoth esisL2 = L1 hypothesis was investigated in two different ways:throu gh the analysis of learner errorsA large proportion of development altype errors was evidence that the processes of L1 acquisition and SLA were similar.work out an order of development based on erro r frequencies longitudinal studies of L2 learnersContextual variatio n inlanguagelearner language (Ch. 4)Learners perform differently i n different situations, but it is still possible to predict how they willbehave in specific situations, then systematicity of their behaviour can be captured by means of variable rules.two types of contextual variationsituational contextlinguistic contextIndividual learner diffe rences (Ch. 5)SLA research has examined five general factors that c ontribute to individual learner differences in some depth:age (eg. a dult vs children)route of learningrate of learningaptitudecognitive stylemotivation。

understanding second language acquisition中文版

understanding second language acquisition中文版

understanding second language acquisition中文版“理解第二语言习得”中文版第一步:理解第二语言习得的定义和背景第二语言习得是指在已掌握第一个语言的基础上,学习和使用第二种语言的过程。

它是人类语言能力发展的重要阶段,也是人们在多语言环境中交流的基础。

同时,了解第二语言习得的过程和机制对于语言教学有重要的指导意义。

第二步:了解第二语言习得的理论模型第二语言习得的理论模型有很多,其中最具影响力的是斯蒂芬·克拉什所提出的语言习得理论和褒里斯·哈斯考尔的互补性语言习得理论。

克拉什的语言习得理论主张,语言习得是一种自然的过程,与母语习得类似,强调输入的重要性。

在语言环境中,学习者通过接触到的语言输入,逐渐积累理解力和使用能力。

哈斯考尔的互补性语言习得理论则认为,心理学和社会情境是影响语言习得的两个关键因素。

在互动与社会交往中,学习者通过试验和失败,逐渐习得第二语言的规则和表达方式。

第三步:了解第二语言习得的过程第二语言习得的过程包括:接触阶段、学习阶段和使用阶段。

接触阶段是指学习者初次接触到第二语言的时期。

在这个阶段,学习者通过语言输入的听力和阅读,逐渐了解第二语言的音韵、词汇和基本语法。

学习阶段是指学习者开始系统学习和掌握第二语言的时期。

在这个阶段,学习者会通过课堂教学、自主学习等途径,逐渐习得第二语言的词汇、语法和语用。

使用阶段是指学习者能够用第二语言进行有效沟通和交流的时期。

在这个阶段,学习者通过与说话人交流和实际语境中使用语言,进一步提高语言的运用能力。

第四步:了解影响第二语言习得的因素影响第二语言习得的因素有很多,包括个体差异、学习环境、学习目的等。

个体差异包括学习者的年龄、性别、智力、学习能力等因素。

年龄是影响第二语言习得的重要因素,儿童的语言习得速度通常比成人更快。

学习环境包括语言输入和社会互动等。

学习者在日常生活中频繁接触到目标语言的环境,会对第二语言习得起到积极的促进作用。

Ellis二语理论

Ellis二语理论

Ellis二语理论第二语言习得理论试图发现语言使用者在产生语言、理解语言或学习第二语言时的心理过程。

这一学科研究的证据或理论能使我们清楚地认识到语言的本质是什么?语言学习的本质又是什么?要想有效地教授、学习一种语言,必须考虑哪些因素。

第二语言习得研究可用以下几点来概括:谁在学习?学习多少?学习什么样的语言?在何种条件下学习?为此,第二语言习得研究人员从不同的角度,运用不同的方法提出自己的理论和模式。

其中Ellis的理论框架在第二语言的理论中占有重要的位置。

Ellis认为,第二语言习得是由五个相互联系着的因素决定的。

这五个因素分别是:情景因素、语言输入、学习者个体差异、学习者的加工过程及第二语言输出。

一、情景因素Ellis认为,情景因素是指谁在和谁谈?交谈的环境是在课堂里,在正式场合,还是在自然的环境中?会话的题目是什么?例如,在课堂教学这个正式场合下,交谈者是教师和学生,双方使用正规的语言,主要学习语言中显性的特征,如语法、词汇等。

Krashen称之为“学得语言”,即学习者有意识地认识第语言的过程,其中人的大脑运用了监控机制。

来监督语言中有无语法错误,是否符合语法规则,因此双方彼此均有心理压力。

相反,在非正式、自然的语言环境中,如在车站、饭馆或在商店里,由于人们是以交际为中心的,所注重的是意义,而不是语言形式,交际是在个无意识的过程中进行,因此,交谈双方没有心理压力,也无意去纠正对方的语法错误,Krashen称之为“无意识地习得语言”。

二、语言输入语言输入是指在用第二语言听或读时所接收的第二语言输入的类型。

例如,教师或操母语的人是怎样将自己的语言调整到第二语言学习者的水平上的?自然情景下的输入和正规课堂情景下的输入有哪些不同?行为主义的语言学习观认为,教师准确而严格地控制输入非常重要。

第二语言必须通过进行大量的练习与强化,少而有步骤地教给学习者。

好象盖房子时,每一块砖都须在精确的程序中仔细放置,以此来建立第二语言的技能和习惯。

第一讲 第二语言习得及其研究概述 (1)

第一讲 第二语言习得及其研究概述 (1)
汉语
母语
第一语言
粤语
方言
第二语言 特定的语言学习过程
法语
朝鲜语
第二语言
外国语
外国语或外族语
武汉大学文学院对外汉语专业本科课程
武汉大学文学院对外汉语专业本科课程
( 1)第一语言是个人身份的标志,总体水平也高于第二语言。 ( 2)第二语言一定是外语。 ( 3)一个人从小就会两三种语言,如何区分哪个是第一语言, 哪个是第二语言? ( 4)一个人母语是西班牙语, 7岁到中国,然后开始学汉语,长 大后居住在北京,以汉语为主要的交流方式。 请问这个人的 西班牙语和汉语相互之间是什么关系?
欧阳晓芳《第二语言习得导论》
2012/9/6
SWBAT
第二语言习得导论
授课人:欧阳晓芳 Email:tcasl.oy@
时间:周一上午9:50 地点:理工楼202
武汉大学文学院对外汉语专业本科课程
了解第二语言习得研究的历史、现状、发展趋势 ; 认识第二语言习得与其他研究领域的关系,学会从语言学、心 理学和社会学等不同的视角来认识二语习得; 掌握一些基本的第二语言习得理论和研究方法; 在学习过程中开始形成自己的教学和研究思路, 为今后的对外 汉语教学实践或作二语习得研究打下一定的基础 。
(guided acquisition)
年轻人,用汉语怎 么定义第二语言习 得呢?
• 学习者在自然的习 得过程中注意力集中 在交际方面而不是语 言形式方面,因而是 一种不经意的或下意 识的学习 。
Klein 心理语言学角度
VanPattern 没有区别
• 学习者在有教学指 导的条件下学习第二 语言,精力主要集中 在语言系统的某些方 面,如语音、词汇、 语法等项目上。

读书笔记(RodEllisSecondLanguageAcquisition)

读书笔记(RodEllisSecondLanguageAcquisition)

/s/blog_4b92bfc0010006f2.html(Oct. 22, 2007)读书笔记—Second Language Acquisition(Rod Ellis, 上海外语教育出版社)2006-12-03 20:15:41这本书用简洁的语言概述了第二语言习得的研究状况,通俗易懂,对于刚入门的读者来说会有很大帮助。

我认为该书在编排上最大的优点是在书的末尾有与正文有关的一些小案例,可以帮助读者更好的理解和掌握作者在书中讲到的理论。

在读完这本书后,我自己感觉收获颇丰。

——Second Language Acquisition(Rod Ellis, 上海外语教育出版社)1. What’s ‘Second Language Acquisition’?1) Introduction: describing and explaining L2 acquisitionL2 is fairly a recent phenomenon, belonging to the second half of the twentieth century. ‘L2 acquisition’ can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue ,inside or outside of a classroom, and Second Language Acquisition (SLA) as the study of this.2) What are the goals of SLA?In general, SLA has not focused on the communicative aspects of language development but on the formal features of language that linguists have traditionally concentrated on. One of the goals of SLA description of L2 acquisition. Another is explanation : identifying the external and internal factors that account for why learners acquire an L2 in the way they to . One of the external factors is the social milieu in which learning takes place. Another external factor is the input that learners receive, that is , the samples of language to which a learner exposed. The internal factors are as follows: (1) Learners possess cognitive mechanisms which enable them to extract information about the L2 from the input ;(2)L2 learners bring an enormous amount of knowledge to task of learning an L2;(3)L2 learners possess general knowledge about the world which they can draw on to help them understand L2 input; (4) L2 learners possess communication strategies that can help them take effective use of their L2 knowledge.The goals of SLA , then , are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at is than others.2. The nature of learner language1) The main way of investigating L2 acquisitionThe main way of investigating L2 acquisition is by collecting and describing samples of learner language . The description may focus on the kinds of errors learners make and how these errors change over time, or it may identify developmental patterns by describing the stages in the acquisition of particular grammatical features such as past tense, or it may examine the variability found in learner language.2) Errors and error analysis(1) The first step in analyzing learner errors is to identify them. It is difficult to identify errors because of two reasons: firstly, it is often difficult to identifythe exact errors that learners make. secondly, it’s hard to distinguish errors and mistakes.(2) The second step is describing errors. Once all the errors have been identified , they can be described and classified into types. There are several ways of doing this . One way is to classify general ways in which the learners utterances differ from the reconstructed target-language utterance. Such ways include ‘omission’, ‘misinformation’ and ‘disordering’.(3) Explaining errors: the identification and description of errors are preliminaries to the much more interesting task of trying to explain why they occur.(4) Error evaluation3) Development patterns(1) The early stages of L2 acquisition : in the circumstances which L2 learners learna language as a natural, untutored process, they undergo a silent period. When learners do begin to speak in the L2 their speech is likely to manifest two particular characteristics. One is the kind of formulaic chunks. The second characteristic of early speech is propositional simplification.(2) The order of acquisition: accuracy order and the order of acquisition(3) Sequence of acquisition4) Variability in learner languageLearner’s language is systematic, but it is also variable. These two characteristics are not contradicted because it is possible that variability is also systematic.(1) It appears that learners vary in their use of the L2 according to linguistic context.(2) Learners also vary the linguistic forms they use in accordance with the situational context.(3) Another important factor that accounts for the systematic nature of variability is the psycholinguistic context.But it would seem that at least some variability is ‘free’. Learners do sometimes use two or more forms in free variation.3. Interlanguage1) Behaviorist learning theory2) A mentalist of language learningIn the 1960 and 1970 , a mentalist theory first language (L1) acquisition emerged. According to this theory:(1) Only human beings are capable of learning language.(2) The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning language, referred to as a Language Acquisition Device. This is separate from the faculties responsible for other kinds of cognitive activity ( for example, logical reasoning).(3) This faculty is the primary determinant of language acquisition(4) Input is needed, but only to ‘trigger’ the operation of the language acquisition device.The conception of interlanguage drew directly on these mentalist views of L1 acquisition.3) What’s ‘interlanguage’?The term ‘interlanguage’ was coined by the American linguist, Larry Selinker, in recognition of the fact that L2 learners construct a linguistic system that draws, in part, on the learner’s L1 but it also different from it and also from the target language. A learner’s interlanguage is, therefore, a unique linguistic system. The concept of interlanguage involves the following premises about L2 acquisition: (1) The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production of the L2. This system of rules is viewed as a ‘mental grammar’ and is referred to as an ‘interlanguage’.(2) The learner’s grammar is permeable.(3) The learner’s grammar is transitional.(4) Some researchers have claimed that the systems learners construct contain variable rules.(5) Learners employ various learning strategies to develop their interlanguages.(6) The learner’s grammar is likely to fossilize.4)A computational model of L2 acquisitionInput →intake→L2 knowledge →output4.Social aspects of interlanguageThree rather different approaches to incorporating a social angle on the study of L2 acquisition can be identified. The first views interlanguage as consisting of different ‘styles’ which learners call upon under different conditions of language use. The second concerns how social factors determine the input that learners use to construct their interlanguage. The third considers how the social identities that learners negotiate in their interactions with native speakers shape their opportunities to speak and, thereby , to learn an L2.1) Interlanguage as a stylistic continuumDrawing on work on variability in learner language, Elaine Tarone has proposed that interlanguage involves a stylistic continuum.Another theory that also draws on the idea of stylistic variation but which is more obviously social is Howard Gile’s accommodation theory.2) The acculturation model of L2 acquisitionA similar perspective on the role of social factors in L2 acquisition can be found in John Schumann’s acculturation model.3) Social identity and investment in L2 learningThe notions of ‘subject to’ and ‘subject of’ are central to Bonny Peirce’s view of the relationship between social context and L2 acquisition.5 Discourse aspects of interlanguageThe study of learner discourse in SLA has been informed by two rather different goals. On the one hand there have been attempts to discover how L2 learners acquire the ‘rules’ of discourse that inform native-speaker language use. On the other hand, a number of researchers have sought to show how interaction shapes interlanguage development.1) Acquiring discourse rules2) The role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition(1) According to Stephen Krashen’s input hypothesis, L2 acquisition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that are at ‘i+1’. According to Krashen , L2 acquisition depends on comprehension input.Michael Long’s interaction hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning.(2) Another perspective on the relationship between discourse and L2 acquisition is provided by Evelyn Hatch. Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavors of the learners and their interlocutors in constructing discourse and suggests that syntactic structures can grow out of the process of building discourse.(3) Other SLA theorists have drawn on the theories of L.S. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist , to explain how interaction serves as the bedrock of acquisition.3) The role of output in L2 acquisitionKrashen argues that ‘Speaking is the result of acquisition not it’s cause’. In contrast, Merrill Swain has argued that comprehensible output also plays a part in L2 acquisition.6 Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage1) L1 transferIt is clear that the transfer is governed by learners perceptions about what is transferable and by their stage of development.2) The role of consciousness in L2 acquisitionStephen Krashen has argued the need to distinguish ‘acquired’L2 knowledge and ‘learned’ Ls knowledge . He claims that the former is developed subconsciously through comprehending input while communicating, while the latter is developed consciously through deliberate study of the L2.Richard Schmidt has pointed out that the term ‘consciousness’ is often used very loosely in SLA and argues that there is a need to standardize the concepts that underlie its use.Schmidt argues that no matter whether learning is intentional or incidental, it involves conscious attention to features in the input.3) Processing operations(1) Operating principlesThe study of the L1 acquisition of many different languages has led to the identification of a number of general strategies which children use to extract and segment linguistic information from the language they hear. Dan Slobin has referred to these strategies as operation principles. Roger Anderson describes a number of operating principles for L2acquisition, and he claims that his principles are ‘macro principles’.4) Processing constraints5) Communicative strategies6) Two types of computational modelOne type involves the idea of ‘serial processing’. The alternative type of apparatus involves the idea of parallel distributed processing.7. Linguistic aspects of interlanguage1) Typological universals: relative clausesA good example of how linguistic enquiry can shed light on interlanguage development can be found in the study of relative clauses.2) Universal GrammarChomsky argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provides parameters which are given particular settings in different languages.3)learnabilityChomsky has claimed that children learning their L1 must rely on innate knowledge of language because otherwise the task facing them is an impossible one.4) The critical period hypothesisThe critical period hypothesis states that there is a period during which language acquisition is easy and complete and beyond which it is difficult and typically incomplete.5) Access to UGWe will briefly examine a number of theoretical positions.a) Complete access: An assumption is that full target-language competence is possible and that there is no such thing as a critical period.b) No access : The argument here is that UG is not available to adult L2 learners.c) Partial access: Another theoretical possibility is that learners have access to part of UG but not others.d) Dual accessAccording to this position, adult L2 learners make use of both UG and general learning strategies.6) Markedness7) Cognitive versus linguistic explanations8. Individual differences in L2 acquisition1) Language aptitudeEarly work by John Carroll led to the identification of a number of components of language aptitude. These are:(1) Phonemic coding ability.(2) Grammatical sensitivity.(3) Inductive language learning ability.(4) Rote learning ability.2) MotivationVarious kinds of motivation have been identified: instrumental, integrative, resultative and intrinsic.3) Learning strategiesDifferent kinds of learning strategies have been identified.Cognitive strategies are those that are involved in the analysis, synthesis, or transformation of learning materials.Metacognitive strategies are those involved in planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning.Social/ affective strategies concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other speakers.9.Instruction and L2 acquisitionSome researchers have studied what impact teaching has on L2 learning. In this chapter we will consider three branches of this research. The first concerns whether teaching learners grammar has any effect on their interlanguage development. The second draws on the research into individual learner differences. The third branch looks at strategy training.1) Form-focused instruction2) Does form-focused instruction work?3) What kind of form-focused instruction works best?Given that instruction can work, it becomes important to discover whether some kinds of instruction work better than others. To illustrate this we will consider a number of options in form-focused instruction. The first concerns the distinction between input-based and production-based practice.The second issue concerns conscious-raising.4) Learner-Instruction matchingA distinct possibility is that the same instructional option is not equally for all L2 learners.5) Strategy strainingMost of the research on strategy training has focused on vocabulary learning.。

Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition /SLA第二语言习得(简称二语习得),通常指母语习得之后的任何其他语言学习。

人们从社会、心理、语言学等角度去研究它。

第二语言习得研究作为一个独立学科,大概形成于二十世纪60年代末70年代初,已有35年的历史。

它对学习者的第二语言特征及其发展变化、学习者学习第二外语时所具有的共同特征和个别差异进行描写,并分析影响二语习得的内外部因素。

与其他社会科学相比,二语习得研究是个新领域,大都借用母语研究、教育学研究或其他相关学科的方法。

概括地说,这一领域的研究是为了系统地探讨二语习得的本质和习得的过程,其主要目标是:描述学习者如何获得第二语言以及解释为什么学习者能够获得第二语言。

到目前为止,二语习得的研究范围远比20世纪七八十年代广,涉及语言学、心理学、心理语言学、语用学,社会语言学等众多方面。

应用语言学的一个重要分支学科,主要研究人们学习第二语言的过程和结果,其目的是对语言学习者的语言能力和交际能力进行客观描述和科学解释。

早期的第二语言习得理论是教学法的附庸,为服务提高教学质量而存在,1967年Larry Selinker在《语言迁移》这本专著第一次提出中介语理论,第二语言习得理论从此有了自己的研究领域而开始成为一门独立的学科。

现时的第二语言习得研究涉及三大领域,即中介语研究,学习者内部因素研究和学习者外部因素研究。

1994年美国费城Temple大学教育学院二语英语教学教授Rod Ellis撰写巨著《第二语言习得研究》,成为该领域的经典教科书。

该书共分七个部分。

第一部分勾画了整本书的概念框架。

第二部分总结了有关学习者语言本质的主要理论,包括学习者错误,发展模式,语言变项和语用特征。

第三部分从外部因素解释第二语言的习得,主要阐述社会因素和输入/交互的作用。

第四部分从内部因素解释第二语言的习得,包括语言迁移、认知论解释和语言普遍性。

第五部分将讨论的重点从学习转移到学习者,论述了第二语言习得的个体差异和学习策略。

第二语言习得理论(来自维基百科)

第二语言习得理论(来自维基百科)

Second-language acquisitionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, searchSecond-language acquisition or second-language learning is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition (often abbreviated to SLA) also refers to the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is named second-language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or subsequent languages. Second-language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching.The academic discipline of second-language acquisition is asub-discipline of applied linguistics. It is broad-based and relatively new. As well as the various branches of linguistics, second-language acquisition is also closely related to psychology, cognitive psychology, and education. To separate the academic discipline from the learning process itself, the terms second-language acquisition research,second-language studies, and second-language acquisition studies are also used. SLA research began as an interdisciplinary field, and because of this it is difficult to identify a precise starting date. However, it doesappear to have developed a great deal since the mid-1960s.The term acquisition was originally used to emphasize the subconscious nature of the learning process, but in recent years learning and acquisition have become largely synonymous.Second-language acquisition can incorporate heritage language learning, but it does not usually incorporate bilingualism. Most SLA researchers see bilingualism as being the end result of learning a language, not the process itself, and see the term as referring to native-like fluency. Writers in fields such as education and psychology, however, often use bilingualism loosely to refer to all forms of multilingualism.Second-language acquisition is also not to be contrasted with the acquisition of a foreign language; rather, the learning of second languages and the learning of foreign languages involve the same fundamental processes in different situations.There has been much debate about exactly how language is learned, and many issues are still unresolved. There are many theories ofsecond-language acquisition, but none are accepted as a complete explanation by all SLA researchers. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field of second-language acquisition, this is not expected to happen in the foreseeable future.HistoryAs SLA began as an interdisciplinary field, it is hard to pin down a precise starting date.[2] However, there are two publications in particular that are seen as instrumental to the development of the modern study of SLA: Pitt Corder's 1967 essay The Significance of Learners' Errors, and Larry Selinker's 1972 article Interlanguage. Corder's essay rejected a behaviorist account of SLA and suggested that learners made use of intrinsic internal linguistic processes; Selinker's article argued that second language learners possess their own individual linguistic systems that are independent from both the first and second languages.[7]In the 1970s the general trend in SLA was for research exploring the ideas of Corder and Selinker, and refuting behaviorist theories of language acquisition. Examples include research into error analysis, studies in transitional stages of second-language ability, and the "morpheme studies" investigating the order in which learners acquired linguistic features. The 70s were dominated by naturalistic studies of people learning English as a second language.[7]By the 1980s, the theories of Stephen Krashen had become the prominent paradigm in SLA. In his theories, often collectively known as the Input Hypothesis, Krashen suggested that language acquisition is driven solely by comprehensible input, language input that learners can understand. Krashen's model was influential in the field of SLA and also had a largeinfluence on language teaching, but it left some important processes in SLA unexplained. Research in the 1980s was characterized by the attempt to fill in these gaps. Some approaches included Lydia White's descriptions of learner competence, and Manfred Pienemann's use of speech processing models and lexical functional grammar to explain learner output. This period also saw the beginning of approaches based in other disciplines, such as the psychological approach of connectionism.[7] The 1990s saw a host of new theories introduced to the field, such as Michael Long's interaction hypothesis, Merrill Swain's output hypothesis, and Richard Schmidt's noticing hypothesis. However, the two main areas of research interest were linguistic theories of SLA based upon Noam Chomsky's universal grammar, and psychological approaches such as skill acquisition theory and connectionism. The latter category also saw the new theories of processability and input processing in this time period. The 1990s also saw the introduction of sociocultural theory, an approach to explain second-language acquisition in terms of the social environment of the learner.[7]In the 2000s research was focused on much the same areas as in the1990s, with research split into two main camps of linguistic and psychological approaches. VanPatten and Benati do not see this state of affairs as changing in the near future, pointing to the support both areas ofresearch have in the wider fields of linguistics and psychology, respectively.[7]Comparisons with first-language acquisitionPeople who learn a second language differ from children learning their first language in a number of ways. Perhaps the most striking of these is that very few adult second-language learners reach the same competence as native speakers of that language. Children learning a second language are more likely to achieve native-like fluency than adults, but in general it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to pass completely for a native speaker. When a learner's speech plateaus in this way it is known as fossilization.In addition, some errors that second-language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, Spanish speakers learning English may say "Is raining" rather than "It is raining", leaving out the subject of the sentence. French speakers learning English, however, do not usually make the same mistake. This is because sentence subjects can be left out in Spanish, but not in French.[8] This influence of the first language on the second is known as language transfer.Also, when people learn a second language, the way they speak their first language changes in subtle ways. These changes can be with any aspectof language, from pronunciation and syntax to gestures the learner makes and the things they tend to notice.[9] For example, French speakers who spoke English as a second language pronounced the /t/ sound in French differently from monolingual French speakers.[10] This effect of the second language on the first led Vivian Cook to propose the idea ofmulti-competence, which sees the different languages a person speaks not as separate systems, but as related systems in their mind.[11]Learner languageLearner language is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second-language acquisition research.[12] Much research in second-language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in the mind of the learner, and in how those representations change over time. It is not yet possibleto inspect these representations directly with brain scans or similar techniques, so SLA researchers are forced to make inferences about these rules from learners' speech or writing.[13]Item and system learningThere are two types of learning that second-language learners engage in. The first is item learning, or the learning of formulaic chunks of language. These chunks can be individual words, set phrases, or formulas like Can Ihave a ___? The second kind of learning is system learning, or the learning of systematic rules.[14]InterlanguageMain article: InterlanguageOriginally, attempts to describe learner language were based on comparing different languages and on analyzing learners' errors. However, these approaches weren't able to predict all the errors that learners made when in the process of learning a second language. For example,Serbo-Croat speakers learning English may say "What does Pat doing now?", although this is not a valid sentence in either language.[15]To explain these kind of systematic errors, the idea of the interlanguage was developed.[16] An interlanguage is an emerging language system in the mind of a second-language learner. A learner's interlanguage is not a deficient version of the language being learned filled with random errors, nor is it a language purely based on errors introduced from the learner's first language. Rather, it is a language in its own right, with its own systematic rules.[17] It is possible to view most aspects of language from an interlanguage perspective, including grammar, phonology, lexicon, and pragmatics.There are three different processes that influence the creation of interlanguages:[15]∙Language transfer. Learners fall back on their mother tongue to help create their language system. This is now recognized not as a mistake, but as a process that all learners go through.∙Overgeneralization. Learners use rules from the second language in a way that native speakers would not. For example, a learnermay say "I goed home", overgeneralizing the English rule ofadding -ed to create past tense verb forms.∙Simplification. Learners use a highly simplified form of language, similar to speech by children or in pidgins. This may be related to linguistic universals.The concept of interlanguage has become very widespread in SLA research, and is often a basic assumption made by researchers.[17] Sequences of acquisitionMain article: Order of acquisitionIn the 1970s several studies investigated the order in which learners acquired different grammatical structures.[19] These studies showed that there was little change in this order among learners with different first languages. Furthermore, it showed that the order was the same for adults and children, and that it did not even change if the learner had languagelessons. This proved that there were factors other than language transfer involved in learning second languages, and was a strong confirmation of the concept of interlanguage.However, the studies did not find that the orders were exactly the same. Although there were remarkable similarities in the order in which all learners learned second-language grammar, there were still some differences among individuals and among learners with different first languages. It is also difficult to tell when exactly a grammatical structure has been learned, as learners may use structures correctly in some situations but not in others. Thus it is more accurate to speak of sequences of acquisition, where particular grammatical features in a language have a fixed sequence of development, but the overall order of acquisition is less rigid.VariabilityAlthough second-language acquisition proceeds in discrete sequences, it does not progress from one step of a sequence to the next in an orderly fashion. There can be considerable variability in features of learners' interlanguage while progressing from one stage to the next.[20] For example, in one study by Rod Ellis a learner used both "No look my card" and "Don't look my card" while playing a game of bingo.[21] A small fraction of variation in interlanguage is free variation, when thelearner uses two forms interchangeably. However, most variation is systemic variation, variation which depends on the context of utterances the learner makes.[20] Forms can vary depending on linguistic context, such as whether the subject of a sentence is a pronoun or a noun; they can vary depending on social context, such as using formal expressions with superiors and informal expressions with friends; and also, they can vary depending on psycholinguistic context, or in other words, on whether learners have the chance to plan what they are going to say.[20] The causes of variability are a matter of great debate among SLA researchers.[21] Language transferMain article: Language transferOne important difference between first-language acquisition and second-language acquisition is that the process of second-language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows. This influence is known as language transfer.[22] Language transfer is a complex phenomenon resulting from interacti on between learners’ prior linguistic knowledge, the target-language input they encounter, and their cognitive processes.[23]Language transfer is not always from the learner’s native language; it can also be from a second language, or a third.[23] Neither is it limited to any particular domain of language; languagetransfer can occur in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, discourse, and reading.[24]One situation in which language transfer often occurs is when learners sense a similarity between a feature of a language that they already know and a corresponding feature of the interlanguage they have developed. If this happens, the acquisition of more complicated language forms may be delayed in favor of simpler language forms that resemble those of the language the learner is familiar with.[23] Learners may also decline to use some language forms at all if they are perceived as being too distant from their first language.[23]Language transfer has been the subject of several studies, and many aspects of it remain unexplained.[23] Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain language transfer, but there is no singlewidely-accepted explanation of why it occurs.[25]External factorsInput and interactionThe primary factor affecting language acquisition appears to be the input that the learner receives. Stephen Krashen took a very strong position on the importance of input, asserting that comprehensible input is all that is necessary for second-language acquisition.[26][27] Krashen pointed tostudies showing that the length of time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his level of language acquisition. Further evidence for input comes from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading have a significant positive effect on learners' vocabulary, grammar, and writing.[28][29] Input is also the mechanism by which people learn languages according to the universal grammar model.[30]The type of input may also be important. One tenet of Krashen's theory is that input should not be grammatically sequenced. He claims that such sequencing, as found in language classrooms where lessons involve practicing a "structure of the day", is not necessary, and may even be harmful.[31]While input is of vital importance, Krashen's assertion that only input matters in second-language acquisition has been contradicted by more recent research. For example, students enrolled in French-language immersion programs in Canada still produced non-native-like grammar when they spoke, even though they had years of meaning-focused lessons and their listening skills were statistically native-level.[32] Output appears to play an important role, and among other things, can help provide learners with feedback, make them concentrate on the form of what they are saying, and help them to automatize their language knowledge.[33]These processes have been codified in the theory of comprehensible output.[34]Researchers have also pointed to interaction in the second language as being important for acquisition. According to Long's interaction hypothesis the conditions for acquisition are especially good when interacting in the second language; specifically, conditions are good when a breakdown in communication occurs and learners must negotiate for meaning. The modifications to speech arising from interactions like this help make input more comprehensible, provide feedback to the learner, and push learners to modify their speech.[35]Social aspectsAlthough the dominant perspective in second-language research is a cognitive one, from the early days of the discipline researchers have also acknowledged that social aspects play an important role.[36] There have been many different approaches to sociolinguistic study ofsecond-language acquisition, and indeed, according to Rod Ellis, this plurality has meant that "sociolinguistic SLA is replete with a bewildering set of terms referring to the social aspects of L2 acquisition".[37] Common to each of these approaches, however, is a rejection of language as a purely psychological phenomenon; instead, sociolinguistic research views the social context in which language islearned as essential for a proper understanding of the acquis ition process.[38]Ellis identifies three types of social structure which can affect the acquisition of second languages: socialinguistic setting, specific social factors, and situational factors.[39] Socialinguistic setting refers to the role of the second language in society, such as whether it is spoken by a majority or a minority of the population, whether its use is widespread or restricted to a few functional roles, or whether the society is predominantly bilingual or monolingual.[40] Ellis also includes the distinction of whether the second language is learned in a natural or an educational setting.[41] Specific social factors that can affectsecond-language acquisition include age, gender, social class, and ethnic identity, with ethnic identity being the one that has received most research attention.[42] Situational factors are those which vary between each social interaction. For example, a learner may use more polite language when talking to someone of higher social status, but more informal language when talking with friends.[43]There have been several models developed to explain social effects on language acquisition. Schumann's acculturation model proposes that learners' rate of development and ultimate level of language achievement is a function of the "social distance" and the "psychological distance"between learners and the second-language community. In Schumann's model the social factors are most important, but the degree to which learners are comfortable with learning the second language also plays a role.[44] Another sociolinguistic model is Gardner's socio-educational model, which was designed to explain classroom language acquisition.[45] The inter-group model proposes "ethnolinguistic vitality" as a key construct for second-language acquisition.[46]Language socialization is an approach with the premise that "linguistic and cultural knowledge are constructed through each other",[47] and saw increased attention after the year 2000.[48] Finally, Norton's theory of social identity is an attempt to codify the relationship between power, identity, and language acquisition.[49]Internal factorsInternal factors affecting second-language acquisition are those which stem from the learner's own mind. Attempts to account for the internal mechanisms of second-language acquisition can be divided into three general strands: cognitive, sociocultural, and linguistic. These explanations are not all compatible, and often differ significantly. Cognitive approachesMuch modern research in second-language acquisition has taken a cognitive approach.[50] Cognitive research is concerned with the mental processes involved in language acquisition, and how they can explain the nature of learners' language knowledge. This area of research is based in the more general area of cognitive science, and uses many concepts and models used in more general cognitive theories of learning. As such, cognitive theories view second-language acquisition as a special case of more general learning mechanisms in the brain. This puts them in direct contrast with linguistic theories, which posit that language acquisition uses a unique process different from other types of learning.[51][52]The dominant model in cognitive approaches to second-language acquisition, and indeed in all second-language acquisition research, is the computational model.[52] The computational model involves three stages. In the first stage, learners retain certain features of the language input in short-term memory. (This retained input is known as intake.) Then, learners convert some of this intake into second-language knowledge, which is stored in long-term memory. Finally, learners use thissecond-language knowledge to produce spoken output.[53] Cognitive theories attempt to codify both the nature of the mental representations of intake and language knowledge, and the mental processes which underlie these stages.In the early days of second-language acquisition research interlanguage was seen as the basic representation of second-language knowledge; however, more recent research has taken a number of different approaches in characterizing the mental representation of language knowledge.[54] There are theories that hypothesize that learner language is inherently variable,[55] and there is the functionalist perspective that sees acquisition of language as intimately tied to the function it provides.[56] Some researchers make the distinction between implicit and explicit language knowledge, and some between declarative and procedural language knowledge.[57] There have also been approaches that argue for a dual-mode system in which some language knowledge is stored as rules, and other language knowledge as items.[58]The mental processes that underlie second-language acquisition can be broken down into micro-processes and macro-processes. Micro-processes include attention;[59] working memory;[60] integration and restructuring, the process by which learners change their interlanguage systems;[61] and monitoring, the conscious attending of learners to their own language output.[62] Macro-processes include the distinction between intentional learning and incidental learning; and also the distinction between explicit and implicit learning.[63] Some of the notable cognitive theories of second-language acquisition include the nativization model, themultidimensional model and processability theory, emergentist models, the competition model, and skill-acquisition theories.[64]Other cognitive approaches have looked at learners' speech production, particularly learners' speech planning and communication strategies. Speech planning can have an effect on learners' spoken output, and research in this area has focused on how planning affects three aspects of speech: complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Of these three, planning effects on fluency has had the most research attention.[65] Communication strategies are conscious strategies that learners employ to get around any instances of communication breakdown they may experience. Their effect on second-language acquisition is unclear, with some researchers claiming they help it, and others claiming the opposite.[66] Sociocultural approachesWhile still essentially being based in the cognitive tradition, sociocultural theory has a fundamentally different set of assumptions to approaches to second-language acquisition based on the computational model.[67] Furthermore, although it is closely affiliated with other social approaches, it is a theory of mind and not of general social explanations of language acquisition. According to Ellis, "It is important to recognize ... that this paradigm, despite the label 'sociocultural' does not seek to explain how learners acquire the cultural values of the L2 but rather how knowledge ofan L2 is internalized through experiences of a sociocultural nature."[67] The origins of sociocultural theory lie in the work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist.[68]Linguistic approachesLinguistic approaches to explaining second-language acquisition spring from the wider study of linguistics. They differ from cognitive approaches and sociocultural approaches in that they consider language knowledge to be unique and distinct from any other type of knowledge.[51][52] The linguistic research tradition in second-language acquisition has developed in relative isolation from the cognitive and sociocultural research traditions, and as of 2010 the influence from the wider field of linguistics was still strong.[50] Two main strands of research can be identified in the linguistic tradition: approaches informed by universal grammar, and typological approaches.[69]Typological universals are principles that hold for all the world's languages. They are found empirically, by surveying different languages and deducing which aspects of them could be universal; these aspects are then checked against other languages to verify the findings. The interlanguages of second-language learners have been shown to obey typological universals, and some researchers have suggested that typological universals may constrain interlanguage development.[70]The theory of universal grammar was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, and has enjoyed considerable popularity in the field of linguistics. It is a narrowly-focused theory that only concentrates on describing the linguistic competence of an individual, as opposed to mechanisms of learning. It consists of a set of principles, which are universal and constant, and a set of parameters, which can be set differently for different languages.[71] The "universals" in universal grammar differ from typological universals in that they are a mental construct derived by researchers, whereas typological universals are readily verifiable by data from world languages.[70] It is widely accepted among researchers in the universal grammar framework that all first-language learners have access to universal grammar; this is not the case for second-language learners, however, and much research in the context of second-language acquisition has focused on what level of access learners may have.[71] Individual variationMain article: Individual variation in second-language acquisitionThere is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and reach a near-native level of competence, but others learn slowly and get stuck at relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is spoken for severalyears. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of language learning aptitude in the 1950s, and later with the good language learner studies in the 1970s. More recently research has focused on a number of different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.。

第二语言习得概论

第二语言习得概论


“习得”是指在自然状态下下意识地、非正式 地学习语言。毫不费力地获得第二语言。

“学习”是指有意识地、正式地学习语言。 这种状态下的学习获得的是一种“元语言知 识 ”(metalanguage knowledge)。即学习 者有意识地学习语言的规则,如语法规则等。 这种学习相对于习得来说,需要耗费时力。
一书看作第二语言习得的开始。
大多数学者认为以下两篇论文是学科建立的标志。 科德:学习者语言偏误的意义
Corder (1967 ) “The significance of learners’ errors”
塞林克:中介语
Selinker (1972)“Interlanguage”


1. 学习者在L2习得过程中获得了什么 为了弄清楚这个问题,学者们收集了大 量的学习者的语言材料,并对这些材料 进行系统的描写,试图发现学习者习得 第二语言的规律。 早期的第二语言习得研究主要集中在学 习者的语言系统的描写上。


4.习得的方法主要靠在自然语言环境中的语 言交际活动,没有大纲和教材;学习是在 教师指导下通过模仿和练习来理解掌握语 言规则。 5.习得需要大量的时间,习得效果一般都较 好;学习花费时间一般较少,但学习效果 通常不佳。 习得是潜意识的自然的获得;学习是有意 识的规则的掌握。




Ellis(1994)明确地将第二语言习得与外 语习得的概念区分开来。 他认为,第二语言习得是指学习者在目的 语国家学习目的语。学习者所学的目的语 在目的语国家是公认的交际工具,当然也 是学习者用来交际的工具。 如:学习者在英国或美国学习英语。英语 在这种环境下应该称作第二语言。

语言习得是一种下意识过程。学习者通常 意识不到他们正在习得语言这一事实,但 是能意识到他们正在用语言进行交际。
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第二语言习得概论Rod Ellis 全书汉语翻译引言写这本书的目的是为了全面的解释第二语言习得,我们尽可能的描述理论,而不是提出理论,所以,本书不会有意识地凸显任何一种二语习得的方法或理论作为已经被认可的看法。

其实,现在做到这一点是不可能的,因为二语习得研究还处于初期阶段,仍有许多问题需要解决,当然,我们不可能完全把描述和解说隔裂开来,所以,对于我所选择描述的理论解释时,不可避免地带有我自己的观点倾向。

这本书写给两类读者,一类是二语习得课程的初学者,他们想整体了解二语研究的现状。

二是想明白学习者怎么学习第二语言的教师。

因为是二语习得的初级教程,第一章列出了有关第二语言习得的主要理论观点。

接下来的几章各自阐述一方面的理论观点,然后第10章汇总所有理论以对二语习得的不同理论进行全面研究。

每章后面提供可进一步阅读的参考建议,这可以指引学生进入二语研究快速发展的前沿领域。

但是,应该想到许多读者是第二语言或外语老师,所以本书也应该让他们对课内和课外的二语习得是怎么发生的有一个清楚的认识。

按传统,是教师决定课堂上学生学习什么和按什么顺序学习。

例如,语言教科书就把既定的内容顺序强加给学生学习,这些课本设想书中设计的语言特征出现的顺序和学生能够接受并习得的顺序相同。

同样,教师在制定教学计划时也会这样做,他们认为精选学习内容和把教学内容排序将有利于教学。

但是除非我们确定教师教学计划和学生的习得顺序相符,不然我们不能确定教学内容可以直接有利于学生学习。

教师不仅决定教学的内容和结构,他们也决定第二语言怎么教,他们决定教学法,他们决定是否操练,操练多少,是否纠错和什么时间纠错以及纠到什么程度,教师们根据他们所选择的教学法来处理语言学习过程。

但是,又一次,我们不能确保教师选择的教学法规则和学习者学习语言的进程是相符的,例如,教师可能决定关注语法的正确性,而学习者可能只关注自己的意思是否被理解,不在乎语法是否正确,教师可能关注操练灌输一个一个语言点,而学生却可能整体上把握语言问题,逐渐的掌握在某一相同的时间处理各种语言点的能力,学生所进行的学习可能不是教师的教学法所设想的。

为了发现学习者是怎么使用他已经掌握的语言数据,我们需要考虑学习者使用的策略,这样我们就可以试着解释学习者为什么用那种方法学习。

所有的教师都有自己的一套语言学习理论,这些理论按照有关语言学习者学习时使用一系列方法原则起作用。

但是,这些理论可能不是很明确,很多情况下,教师对于语言学生的观点会有所变化并且只包含他的行为中,例如,他可能开始决定给初学者学习现在时,这样做,他可能有意识的判定;在初级阶段,语法应该比诸如发现词汇等其他语言方面的知识先学,因为他认为这符合学习者的学习顺序,甚至他可能没有经过有意识的调查就这样认为。

先学现代时的决定还暗含很多东西,一个是学生应该先学习动词而不是名词或其他语言组成部分,另一个是学生在众多的动词时态中需要先学习现代时,教师可能意识到或没有意识到这些暗含的内容,他可能只是凭他永远也弄不清的直觉。

语言教学离不开语言学习理论,只不过这些学习理论常常是一系列隐含的信念。

本书通过考察语言学习者的语言积极产出语言的过程来帮助教师建立明确的语言学习理论。

这建立在一个假设的基础之上,即教师建立了明确的语言学习理论之后会做得更好。

这一假设也是需要证实的。

原理只有明确了以后才使用一种观点去考察、修正或代替它。

使用不明确的教学观念的教师不仅是非批判性的,而且其观点在不断的变化,二者必有其一,他们可能盲目的根据流行的语言教学最新时尚无规则的变换他们的教学理念,而教学中有明确原理观点的教师这可以批判地考察这些时尚教学原则。

本书认为,有明确语言学习理论的老师会做得更好,并且愿意修订自己的观念,而没有明确学习理论的教师可能忽视学习者真正做了什么,更多的关注语言学习过程的复杂性不能确保语言教学更有效,可以认为我们现在的知识还不能确保教学应用,但它会激起批判、挑战旧的原理并且可能会促使建立新的。

有意识的研究二语教学是为了改进教学。

不管是二语习得的学生,还是想对教学过程知道更多的教师,他们都需要发展自己的二语习得理论。

本书提供了理论建立基础所必要的背景知识,在第10章,我列出了一个框架和一系列假设来解释二语习得理论。

这本书得到了许多人的帮助,我特别要感谢助理亨利韦德森和基斯约翰,他们协助我写作和修订手稿,当然,书中的任何错误都由我承胆。

书中用“他”来代替“老师”和“学习者”,选择他们只是因为格式上方便,只是一个无标志的符号,如果有的读者不接受,我在这里表示道歉。

第一章二语习得的几个关键概念引言二语习得是一个复杂的过程,包含许多相关联的方面,这一章将考察对这一过程研究过程中提出的主要概念。

首先介绍什么是“二语习得”,然后讨论几个二语习得研究者经常使用的概念,最后,为本书以后章节讨论这些问题设立一个框架。

什么是二语习得?为了研究二语习得,弄清它的概念是非常重要的,为了读者能够弄清研究者对二语学习研究的立场,我们需要列出一系列的关键问题,下面的介绍的重点都集中在理解研究者是怎么考察二语习得的,他们是下面几章介绍的各种不同观点的基础。

二语习得作为一个统一的现象二语习得不是一个整齐划一可以预测的现象,学习者学习第二语言知识不只是采用同一种方法,二语习得是由学习者和学习环境两方面有关的多种因素而产生的,这两方面的各种因素互相影响导致了二语习得的复杂性和多样性,我们认识到这一点是很重要的,不同的学习者在不同的学习环境中采用不同的方法学习,不过,虽然要强调语言学习的差异性和独特性,但是只有二语习得可能具有相对稳定和概括性才会引起研究者的兴趣。

如果这种概括性不是对于所有学习者,至少应该是大多数,“二语习得”这一概念就是用来概括这些一致的方面,这本书同时考察习得过程不变的和具有明显灵活性的因素。

二语习得和第一语言习得二语习得是和第一语言习得相对的,他研究学习者在母语习得后怎么学习另一种语言,语言学习的研究开始于第一语言的习得研究,二语习得的方法论和探讨的许多主要议题都追随第一语言习得研究,所以一个关键的问题就体现了二语习得和第一语言习得过程相同或不同的程度,这不奇怪。

二语习得和外语习得二语习得和外语习得并不是相对的,二语习得用来表达概括化的概念既包括非教学(自然)习得,也包括教学(课堂)习得,不过,这两种不同情况下的习得采用的是相同还是不同的方法,这个问题还有待回答。

以句法和词法为中心二语习得涉及到语言学习者需要掌握的所有语言方面的内容,但是,关注的是学习者怎么掌握语法的次系统,比如否定句、疑问句,或者词素,如复数、定冠词、不定冠词。

研究者常会忽视其他语言水平单位的学习,如很少关于第二语言语音,几乎没有关于词汇的习得。

仅仅是最近,研究者才开始关注学习者是怎么获得语言交际能力的,也才开始考察学习者是怎样使用他们的知识表达意愿和情感的。

(实用的知识)所以,这本书所涉及的大部分是二语习得句法和词法方面的内容,必须承认这是一个缺陷,许多研究者现在承认不仅研究二语习得的其他方面比较重要(特别是参与对话能力的获得),而且语法习得的其他方面也很重要。

能力和表现在语言研究中能力和表现往往有很大区别,能力是由语言规则在脑中的图像组成,语言规则构成说话和听话者的内部语法。

表现由语言的理解和输出组成,语言习得研究——不管是第一还是第二语言习得——都对能力怎么发展感兴趣,不过,因为我们不能直接考察学习者内化的规则,我们必须考察学习者的表现,主要是输出,学习者的输出内容为我们考察内部规则提供了一个窗口,所以,就某种意义来说,二语习得研究就是关于输出的研究,它要看学习者实际说出的话,这些被看成是学习者脑子怎么想的证明,有一个主要的问题研究者必须搞清楚,即能力在多大程度上由输出推出。

习得和学习如果习得和学习是两个不同的过程,那么他们就是相对的概念。

“习得”一般指自然获得的,而“学习”一般指有意识的学习第二语言。

但是我认为这是否是一个真正的区别还值得探讨,所以我交替使用“习得”和“学习”而不管学习过程是有意识还是无意识,如果我想使用他们的具体意思,我会把字体变成斜体并做详细说明。

总之,“二语习得”就是在自然或教学中学习非母语的有意识或无意识的过程,它包括语音、词汇、语法和语用知识,但已经在很大程度上局限于形态句法了。

下面要介绍一些二语习得的关键问题第一语言的作用从战后开始到19世纪60年代,有一个强有力的理论认为学习第二语言的许多困难是由第一语言造成的,它认定第一语言和第二语言不同的地方,学习者第一语言的知识会干扰他们学习第二语言,而相同的地方则促进第二语言的学习,这一过程叫做“语言迁移”,第一语言和第二语言相同的部分对语言学习起积极作用,不同的部分起消极作用,人们(例如:1960布鲁斯和1964拉多)鼓励教师关注产生负迁移的困难部分,并鼓励他们用大量的练习来克服这些难点。

为了认定难点,从而产生了对比分析理论。

这一理论的思想基础是,找出学习者第一语言和第二语言的差别有可能预测某一二语学习者将遇到的困难。

最后出现了对两种语言的描写和语言间的比较研究。

很多不同于第一语言的第二语言特征被列出,认为这就是难点,在教学大纲中应该作为重点。

直到1960年代,实际的调查动摇了对比分析假设,学习者的错误都来自第一语言的影响吗?像杜蕾和波特(1973、1974)这样的研究者怀疑负迁移是否是二语习得过程中的主要因素。

有很大一部分语法错误(虽然有多大部分还是一个有争议的问题)不能用第一语言干扰来解释。

这种研究的结果是使第一语言的地位降低了,而对比分析也不再那么流行。

不过,早期的经验主义研究还剩有许多问题没有解决,特别是没有注意到L1不是通过迁移而是通过其他方式起作用的可能性。

迁移理论是和一个观点相联系的,这个观点认为语言学习就是通过练习和强化形成一系列的行为习惯,为了挑战这种语言学习观点,我们必须证明第一语言的旧习惯不会阻碍第二语言新习惯的学习,由此证明L2学习的错误不总是有干扰造成的,但是L1可能以完全不同的方式影响学习,例如,学习者并不把L1的规则迁移到学习中,而是避免使用L1没有的规则,或者可能L1和L2包含难点的不同部分受到语言学上的限制,因此迁移只有在特定的语言情况下才发生;或者学习者可能有意识的借用L1的知识来提高他们的成绩。

(也就是他们“翻译”)如果采用更认知的观点看待L1,那么这就是一个非常值得探讨的话题。

第二章我们会考察对比分析假设,还有因为学习者错误的研究致使它被人们抛弃。

第二和第八章介绍最近的研究,L1语言作为二语习得的一个积极的因素重新被人们肯定。

习得的自然顺序对比分析假设有有一个假设认为由于负迁移造成不同类型的难点,那么不同L1的学习者学习L2的方式也是不同的。

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