Chapter 4 From word to text (1)
语言学教程练习 第4章
Chapter Four From Word to TextI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.of the following term does NOT mean the same as the relation of substitutabilityA. Associative relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Vertical relationD. Horizontal relation2. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjuncts clauses and _______.A. relative clausesB. adverbial clausesC. coordinate clausesD. subordinate clauses3. Names of the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT ______.A. subjects and objectsB. objects and predicatorsC. modifiers and complementsD. endocentric and exocentric4. In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of perception and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT _______.A. inflectionB. following a prepositionC. word orderD. vertical relation5. In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by _____ and ____.A. subject; objectB. subject; predicateC. predicate; objectD. object; predicate6. Phrase structure rules have _____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Which of the following is NOT among the three basic ways to classify languages in the worldA. Word orderB. Genetic classificationC. Areal classificationD. Social classification8. The head of the phrase the city Rome is ______.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase on the shelf belongs to ______ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves is a _____ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.1.The relation of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,partly to paradigmatic relations.2.One property coordination reveals is that there is a limit on the numberof coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.3.According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, deep structure contain allthe information necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.4.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to wordorder and by inflections of pronouns.5.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-onerelation.ually noun phrases, verb phrases and adverbial phrases belong toendocentric types of constriction.7.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.8.In the exocentric construction John kicked the ball, neitherconstituent stands for the verb-object sequence.9.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.10.In a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur asdaughters and co-heads of a higher S.III. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given.1.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the Heads andconsequently, they can be called m____________.2.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman). The partin the bracket is a c_________ clause.3.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, wehave another two terms, p____________ and n__________.4.There is a tendency to make a distinction between phrase and w_______,which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.5.Recursiveness, together with o_______, is generally regarded as thecore of creativity of language.6.Traditionally, p_________ is seen as part of a structural hierarchy,positioned between clause and word.7.The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identitythe s______ relationship between words in a sentence.8.Clause can be classifies into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the latterincluding the traditional infinitive phrase, p__________, and gerundial phrase.9.Gender displays such contrasts as masculine: feminine: n_______.10.English gender contrast can only be observed in g__________ and a smallnumber of l__________ and they are mainly of the natural gender type.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Syntax2.IC analysis3.Relation of co-occurrence4.Category5.RecursivenessVI. Answer the following question.1.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction2.What are the basic functional terms in syntaxVII. Essay question.1.Explain an comment on the following sentence a and b.a.John is easy to please.b.John is eager to please.ment on the statement, “Linguistic structure is hiearchical”I. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.1.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but they arecapable of yielding an infinite number of sentences.2.Although, a single word can also be uttered as a sentence, normallya sentence consists of at least a subject, its predicate and an object.\3.The sentences are linearly structured, so they are composed of sequenceof words arranged in a simple linear order.4. his upon an idea.idea hit upon John.In the above sentences, the subject and object constituent by the sentences switch their position. Although sentence b is absurd, it is still grammatical, because John and an idea are of the same phrasal category.5.Though they are of a small number, the combinational rules are powerfulenough to yield all the possible sentences and rule out the impossible ones.6.In a sentence like Mary likes flowers, both Mary and flowers are notonly Nouns, but also Noun Phrases.7.The recursive property can basically be discussed in a category-basedgrammar, but not in a word-based grammar.8.An XP must contain an X which is called the phrasal head.9.In the phrase this very tall girl, tall girl is an obligatory elementand the head of the phrase.10.a. The man beat the child. b. The child was beaten by the man.In the above sentences, the movement of the child from its original place to a new place is a WH- movement.11.Tense and aspect, the two important categories of the verb, nowadaysare viewed as separate notions in grammar.12.The structuralists regard linguistic units as isolated bits in astructure (or system).13.IC analysis can help us to see the internal structure of a sentenceclearly and it can also distinguish the ambiguity of a sentence. 14.Structural linguists hold that a sentence does only have a linearstructure, but it has a hierarchical structure, made up of layers of word groups.15.In Saussure’s view, the linguist cannot attempt to explain individualsigns in a piecemeal fashion. Instead he must try to find the value of a sign from its relation to others, or rather, its position in the system.16.The theme-rheme order is the usual one in unemotional narration, whichis a subjective order.17.What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functionsof language to its structure.18.Sentence is a basic unit of structure in functional grammar.19.The interpersonal function of language refers to the idea held byHalliday that language serves ot establish and maintain social relations.20.Finite is a function in the clause as a representation, both therepresentation of outer experience and inner experience.21.The relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,partly to paradigmatic relations.22.According to Chomsky, grammar is a mechanism that should be able togenerate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language.23.In English, the subject of a sentence is said to be the doer of anaction, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.Therefore, the subject is always an agent and the patient is always the object.24.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to wordorder and by inflections of pronouns.25.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-onerelation.26.The syntactic rules of a language are finite in number, and there area limited number of sentences which can be produced.27.Structuralism views language as both linearly and hierarchicallystructured.28.Phrase structure rules provide explanations on how syntacticcategories are formed and sentences generated.29.UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specificgift which exists in the mind of a normal human being.30.Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb, and theywere separated in traditional grammar.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s). 1.As is required by the ______, a noun phrase must have case and caseis assigned by verb, or preposition to the _________ position or by auxiliary to the ________ position.2.Adjacency condition states that a case _________ and a case _______should stay adjacent to each other.3.The general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of anyconstituent movement is called __________.4.The phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generatesentences at the level of _________.5.The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromthe level of ________ to that of ______.6.In English there are two major types of movement, one involving themovement of an NP is called __________ movement and the other a WH-word is called _________movement.7.a. The boy ate the apple.c.The apple was eaten by the boy.In Sentence b, the boy and the apple are moved from their original positions in Sentence a to new positions, with the boy _________ to the right and the man ________ to the left.8.In the sentence the man was bitten by a dog, the man is both the _______subject and the ___________ object.9.The decision on where to make the cuts in IC analysis relies on ________:whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same.10.IC Analysis is different from the traditional parsing in that ICemphasizes the function of the _________ level-word group, seeing a hierarchical structure of the sentence as well.11.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head andconsequently, they can be called __________.12.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman).The part in the bracket is a __________ clause.13.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, wehave another two terms, ________ and _________.14.English gender contrast can only be observed in ________ and a smallnumber of _______ and they are mainly of the natural gender type. 15.There is tendency to make a distinction between phrase and ________,which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.16.Recursiveness, together with _________, is generally regarded as thecore of creativity of language.17.Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicatewhich contains a ________ verb or a verb phrase.18.The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structureof a sentence is ________.19.The starting point of an utterance which is known in the givensituation and from which the speaker proceeds is named ________. 20.___________ structure can become the sole responsible structure forsemantic interpretation by the introduction of the trace theory.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.sentence John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history is a _______ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. complexD. relational2. In the sentence Mary told Jane that John liked linguistics the introductory word that is called _______.A. coordinating conjunctionB. conjunctionC. subordinatorD. embedded word3. The student The above segmentation truthfully reveals the _______ nature of sentence structure.A. hierarchicalB. linearC. horizontalD. parallel4. The sentence The tall man and women left can be illustrated by tree diagram _____.A.(1)B.(2)C. both (1) and (2)D. neitherto the following three diagram, V can only be replaced by ____.A. satB. broughtC. pushedD. nonewas linguistics that John liked the mostWhich of the following statements about the two sentences (a and b) given above is NOT trueA. In both sentence a and sentence b, John is the logical subject.B. In structural concept, John is the structural subject of asentence.C. It in sentence b is the structural subject of the matrix clause.D. John is the structural subject in both a and b.conclusion that a set of principles or rules govern language use is based on the observation that _________.make acceptability judgment about sentences they have never heard before.is a habit-structure.accounts for language acquisition.information must form part of syntactic movement.symbol N indicates a/an ________.category categorycategory D. lexical insertion rulethe following combination possibilities, ______ can NOT be generated from the following rule: NP →(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S).A. NP →N →Det Adj S →Det N →Det Adj N PPS.advantage of X-bar syntax over phrase structure syntax is that X-bar. a ploliferation of redundant intermediate categories.us to identify indefinitely long embedded sentences.C. allows as to postulate categories other than lexical and phrasal.D. forces us to conclude that the ambiguity of phrases like the EnglishKing is lexical rather than structural.11. Which set of rules generates the following tree structuresA. S →NP VPB. NP → VPNP→ N PP NP→ NP NP PPVP→ V NP VP→ V NP PPPP →P NP PP →P NPNP→ N NP →NVP VP D, S NP VPNP→ (NP/PP) NP →NP (NP /PP)VP →V NP VP →V NPPP →P NP PP →P NPNP→ N NP →Nseems they are quite fit for the job.b. They seem quite fit for the job.Sentence b is a result of ______ movement.. D. None13. The head of the phrase underneath the open window is _______.following statements are in accordance with Hallliday’s opinion on language EXCEPT _______.use of language involves a network of systems of choices.B. Language is never used as a mere mirror of reflected thought.is a system of abstract forms and signs.functions as a piece of human behavior.is more concerned with ____ relations in his approach to syntax.is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in Certain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.C. BindingD. Co-command17. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjunct clauses and _____.clauses clausesclauses clausesof the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT_____.and objects and predicatorsand complements D. endocentric and exocentricEnglish, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT ______.a preposition order relation20. Clauses can be classified into finite and non-finite clauses, _____ including the traditional infinitive phrases, participial phrase and gerundial phrase.A. the formerB. the latter D. neitheris the _______ on case assignment that states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.A. Case Condition ConditionCondition Parameter.analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phrase…d. sentenceof the following italic parts is NOT an idiomA. How to you doB. How did you doC. He went to it hammer and tongs.D. They kept tabs on the Russian spy.we say that we can change the second word in the sentence she is singing in the room with another word or phrase, we are talking about ______.A. governmentB. linear relationsC. syntactic relationsD. paradigmatic relationsthe phrase structure rule S→NP VP, the arrow can be read as ______.A. hasB. generatesC. consists ofD. is equal toIV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary.1.The following two sentences are ambiguous. Show the two readings ofeach by drawing its respective tree diagrams.(1)The ball man and woman left(2) Visiting professor can be interestinge an example to show what a tree diagram is (as it is used inTransformational-Generative Grammar).e an example to show what IC analysis is.4.What are the three general functions of language according to Halliday5.What distinguishes the structural approach to syntax from thetraditional one6.Some grammar books say there are three basic tenses in English-thepresent, the past and the future; others say there are only two basic tenses –the present and the past. Explain what tense is and whether it is justifiable to say there is a future tense in English.。
语言学总复习
Origin of language
Divine- origin theory 神授说 Bow-wow theory 汪汪理论 摹声说 Pooh-pooh theory 噗噗理论 感叹说 Yo-he-ho theory 呦嘿吼理论 劳动叫喊说
Functions of language
The nose: the nasal cavity(鼻腔)
Table
2.1 A chart of English consonants
English vowels(RP)
Four basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
The classification of word 词的分类
1 variable and invariable words可变词与不 变词 2 grammatical (functional) and lexical (content) words词汇词和语法词 3 closed-class and open-class words 封闭 类词和开放类词 4 word class词类
Important distinctions in linguistics
语言学纲要(徐通锵版)第四章讲义
Chapter FourGrammar—From Word to TextContents1.Grammatical Introduction2.Syntagmatic rules3.Paradigmatic rules4.Transformation5.Linguistic Type in Structurerules•The use of language,like games,has its own rules.To play the games well,you should know the rules.•Words,word groups and phrases,and clauses cannot occur at random,they have to follow certain rules of ordering.1.Grammatical Introduction1.1Syntax•Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.•On the level of syntax,we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.-The external syntax of a construction refers to anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts.-The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction's"make-up",with the terms such as"subject,predicate,object,determiner,noun".语法概说根据研究的需要，从不同角度对语法现象进行切分1.词法和句法(morphology&syntax)这是传统语法学提出的一种切分方法。
语言学Chapter4Exercises含答案
Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is nolimit to the number of sentencesnative speakers of that languageare able to produce and comprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase,infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization of Englishsentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s _________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same timestructurally alone is known as an f _____________ clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phraseand which says something about the subject is grammaticallycalled p ___________________ .4. A c __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e ________ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.7. G ________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence8. A a __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s ___________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, questionor command.10. A s ___________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4.complex 5. embedded6. open7. grammatical8. simple9.sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement :1 The head of the phrase “ the city Rome ” is __________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city andRome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have ______A. recursiveproperties.B. grammaticalD. functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understandA.how words and phrases form sentences. B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words C.how people produce and recognize possible sentences D. All of the above.5 The phrase “ on the half ” belongs to ________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact thatA.noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. B.noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsC. sociD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is _______ .A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are _____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The _______ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not toexposethemselves ” is a___________ s entenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate con stitue nts -word groups (phrases), which are in turn an alyzed into theimmediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups wordsinto structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complexsentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which isincorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of itsconstituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head.The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is definednegatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3. 略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause whichcontains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its ownsentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
语言学教程Chapter 4. From Word to Text
• The boy kicked the ball
NP1
NP2
Subject
Object
.
4
• Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
– If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world:
– SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
.
3
1.1 Relations of Position
• For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.
.
6
• Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.
(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。
Chapter4-2(11-16)from word to text
Chapter FourFrom Word to Text(To be continued)The traditional approachThe structural approachThe tansformational-generative approachprescriptiveModern linguistics owes a large debt to traditional grammartraditional approach or traditonal grammarconstituent and construction成分结构The girl ate the apple. (S)the girl (NP) ate the apple (VP)the, girl, ate, the, appleThe structural approach句子不是成分，句子以内的单位都是成分；最终成分不是结构，最终成分以上的单位都是结构；成分有最终成分、中间成分和直接成分之分6the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reachedIC analysis is the segmentation of a sentence into immediate constituents by using binary cuttings until obtaining its ultimate constituents.LINGUISTICSIMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANAL YSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)Tree diagramThe girl ate the appleUsing linesThe// girl /ate //the ///appleBracketing(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))[[[The] [girl]] [[ate] [[the] [apple]]]]ThegirlatetheappleThe girl ate the applethe appleAdvantages of IC Analysis1）To demonstrate the internal structure of a sentence clearly揭示语句的内部构件或结构2）To reveal the structural ambiguities从结构上解释歧义leave the book on the shelfsynthetic buffalo hidesold men and womenmore modern musicLeave the book on the shelfLeave the book on the shelfDisadvantage语言分析光考虑结构意义是不够的。
七年级英语上册《Chapter4 The world of numbers》教案 牛津版
《Chapter4 The world of numbers》The first period: word s preparationTeaching aims:1.Introduce the words of different kinds of numbers2.To read out all kinds of numbers and symbolsTeaching Difficulties:How to read out the different kinds of numbers correctly and tell them by listening Teaching focuses:1.Help students to master the new words.2.Help the students to know something about the language of numbersTeaching aids: some paper with different groups of numbers, a tape recorder and multi-media.Teaching procedures:Step1 Lead-in and revision：Encourage students to speak out at least three things that can be understood by all human beings with different language: music , painting, food ,numbersA ctivity1: ask all the students to stand up and count the numbers one by one. Eachstudent has a chance to say “pass” and “backwards”.A ctivity2: the teacher say :”Page X”, all the students find that page aas quicklyas possible. Then the students work in groups of four.Step2: word studyTask 1:Teach new vocabulary of numbers by showing students some groups of numbers and ask them to find out the rulesCardinal numbers and ordinal numbersOdd numbers and even numbersNumbers showing degreesDecimalsFractionsPercentagesSymbolsTask 2: page 44 A Match the words with the signs and numbersTask 3: Teach students to read out Numbers showing degrees, Decimals, Fractions , PercentagesSymbolsStep3 : ListeningPage 48 AStep 4: Teach the way of saying “＋,－, ×,÷”Task 1: say the followings in English: 7＋8=155×7=3529－17=1280÷4=20Task 2: choose any to pieces from the cards, ask the students to make the result 10 by using “＋,－, ×,÷”. (the cards J, Q, K are “0”) HomeworkExercise book :vocabulary ABCThe second period: VocabularyTeaching aims:Master all the new words in this unit.Teaching difficulties:The spelling of new words.Teaching aids:The multimedia and the blackboardTeaching proceduresStep 1: write down “0” on the blackboard,talk about it and present: ancient numbers, consist of , Indian, develop, invent, invention...show pictures of an abacus and an electronic calculator and a computerTalk about them and present the new words:invent invention abacus calculator accurate ...Step 2: Ask the students to finish Part C1,PartC2PartC3.Part DPart EComplete each task individually first and then discuss in groups then in the class.Step3. Further study.Learn more expressions about dif ferent usage of numbers.1.房号： 1103 ---- Room 11032.班级、年级－－ Class 6, Grade 9/Form Three3.时间： 6：50－－ six fifty; ten to seven4.年、月、日： 1986/12/6--- December the sixth, nineteen eighty-six5.温度：36°C－－thirty-six Celsius degree6.序数： 12th－－ twelfth 14th——fourteenthStep4: More activitiesActivity1; work in groups of four, one student say some numbers from 1 to 1oo quickly, the others write them down as quickly as possible. Activity2; work in groups of four, one student say some numbers from 1 to 1oo quickly, the others circle them on a piece of paper which is full of differentnumbers as quickly as possible.Activity3; fill in the blanks with appropriate numbers.two，five，eight，eleven，fourteen，______ , twentytwo，four，seven，eleven，sixteen，______ , twenty-ninethree , four, seven, eleven, _______four , nine, ______ twenty-fiveHomework:Exercise book :vocabulary DThe third period: readingTeaching Aims:1.Learn about numbers from the old world to the present world2.Train the stu dents’ reading ability.Teaching Important Point:1.Improve the students’ reading ability.2.Develop the students’ creative, comprehensive and consolidating abilities. Teaching Difficult Point:1.How to improve the students’ reading ability.2. The use of some useful expressions about numbersTeaching Methods:Individual, pair or group work to make every student work in class.Teaching Aids:The multimedia and the blackboardTeaching Procedures:Step 1 Presentation1．Ask students how much they know about the world of numbers.2．Show some pictures of different kinds of calculating machines to the students to arouse their interest.Step 2 Look and thinkRead the title, its subtitle, the headings and the pictures. Then on the list below, tick the tings you think the article may tell you.Step 3 Reading1.Give the students some questions about the text.1.How many kinds of calculating machines are there in the text?2.What are they?3.Who first invented and developed the system 1 to 9 system?4.Was Zero invented first?5.Step 4. Find out the fact in Part D & E1.Li: Everyone knows it.May : Knows what?Li: The language of numbers.2.Li: ______________.3. Li: ______ ________4. Li:____________5. Li:____________6. Li:______________________.7. Li:____________8. Li:____________Step 5 Consolidation and homework:1.Read the whole article after the tape.2.Copy the new words in the article 4 times for each. And memorize them by heart.Step 6 homeworkExercise Book : ReadingThe fourth period: languageTeaching Aims:1. Learn about giving orders or instructions.2. Train the students’ language ability to use cardinal and ordinal numbersTeaching Important Points:1. Improve the s tudents’ language ability2. Enable the students to master the words and grammar3. Develop the students’ creative, comprehensive and consolidating abilities.Teaching difficult Points:1. How to improve the students’ language ability.2. How to use imperative sentencesTeaching Methods:1. Individual, pair or group work to make every student master the knowledge.Teaching Aids:The multimedia and the blackboard.Teaching Procedures:Step 1: Further study of the passage.Task 1: Work in pairs to find out the phrases from the passage.1.在古代 in ancient times2 以不同方式 in different ways3由…组成consist of4从…到… from …to5数字系统 system of numbers6计算机器 calculating machines7在算盘上 on the abacus8电子计算器 calculators9进行计算 do calculation10短时间内/迅速 in a flash11 能够 be able to do12 在你一生的时间里 in your whole life13下面的故事 the following story14解决问题 solve the problems15 够强大 powerful enoughStep 2:Explain some key sentences from the passage1.In ancient times, people wrote numbers in different ways.2.However they nearly all counted in tens.3.The system of numbers today consist of the number from 1 to 9and 0.4.Abacus are so fast and accurate that people still use it today.5. A computer can so a calculation in a flash.6.She has an amazing brain and can calculate like lightening.Step 3 Practice reading1.Ask the students to read the key sentences above after the teacher.2.Ask the students to read the whole passage after the tape and then together.Step 4 Language祈使句 : 是表示请求、命令、建议等句子，通常称为“无主句”。
语言学概论
Chapter 1Invitation to Linguisticsnguage (语言) (p.2): A systematic system of meaningful symbols used for human communication, e.g. Chinese, English, Russian, etc..2.Design features of language (语言的区别性特征) (p.3): Features that distinguish human language from animal communication.○1Arbitrariness of language(任意性):The arbitrariness of language refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry (p.4).○2Duality of language(二重性):: The duality of language refers to the fact that human language has two levels of structures.○3Creativity of language (创造性): Because of its duality and recursiveness, language is resourceful and is capable of producing various and numerous expressions. (p.7) ○4Displacement of language (移位性): Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication. (p.7)3.Functions of language: ○1informative信息功能○2interpersonal function人际功能○3 performative施为功能○4emotive function感情功能○5phatic communion寒暄功能○6 recreational function娱乐功能○7metalingual function元语言功能4.Branches of linguistics (语言学分支) (p.15): Different fields/areas of linguistic study Phonetics语音学, phonology音系学，morphology形态学, syntax句法学，semantics 语义学，pragmatic语用学5.Interdisciplinary fields of linguistics (跨学科语言学) (p.18): Fields of linguistic studies that are related to other sciences, incl. psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, etc.6.Major distinctions in linguistics (语言学中的相对概念) (p.20): Contrastive pairs of linguistic concepts, e.g. prescriptive grammar vs. descriptive grammar, language competence vs. language performance, etcChapter 2Speech Sounds1.The IPA (国际音标) (p.28): A system of symbols designed to represent sounds of various languages, esp. vowels and consonants.2.Consonants and vowels(辅音和元音) (p.29): Sounds that are obstructed when pronounced are consonants, e.g. /p/, /f/; those that are not are vowels, e.g. /i:/, /e/, etc.3.Phoneme and allophone (音位与音位变体) (p.38): A phoneme is a group of sounds that sound similar and are in complementary distribution, e.g. /t/. /s/, etc.; the different members of a phoneme are called allophones, e.g. the different pronunciations of /t/ at different positions of syllables in words: too /tu:/, put /put/ and stick /stik/.4.Distinctive features (of phonemes) (音位的区别性特征) (p.45): Features that can distinguish a phoneme from other phonemes, e.g. the consonants /s/ and /z/ are distinguished by the feature of + or – voice.5.Phonological process (音变过程/类型) (p.41): A process in which the pronunciation of phonemes/sounds changes because of the impact of otheradjacent/immediate phonemes/sounds, incl. assimilation (同化), epenthesis (增音), etc.6.Suprasegmental (超切分音位) (p.47): A Phonological unit that usually spreads over more than one phoneme, incl. syllable, stress, intonation, tone, rhythm, etc Chapter 3From Morpheme to Phrase1.Morpheme and allomorph (词位/词素/语素与词位变体) (p.52): The morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language which often has variants called allomorphs (changed forms, not the meaning), e.g. the negative morpheme {in-} consists of such allomorphs as im-, il-, ir-, etc.2.Free morpheme and bound morpheme (自由词位与粘着性词位) (p.53): A morpheme that can be used freely as a word is a free morpheme while one that can not and has to be combined with at least one other morpheme is a bound morpheme, e.g. “hat” and “the” are free morphemes while “pre-” and “-ed” are bound morphemes.3.Word root, word base and affix (词根, 词基与词缀) (p.53):4.Word (词) (p.57): A morpheme or a combination of morphemes that can be used freely in a language, e.g. “school”5.Inflection (屈折变化) (p.61): The process in which an inflectional affix (indicating number, tense, etc.) is added to a word stem, e.g. when “-ing” is added to the verb “beat” to create continuous tense: beating.6.The word-formation process of derivation (派生) is not included as inflection, and the affixes used in this process are called “derivational affixes”.7.Major processes of word-formation (主要构词法) (p.61):Derivation (派生法), Compounding (合成法), Conversion (class shift) (词性转换法).Chapter 4: From Word to Text1.Syntactic relations (句法关系): ○1positional relation位置关系○2Substitutability可替代性关系refers to the relation between a word/phrase in a phrase/sentence and another word/phrase that can replace it without affecting the grammatical structure, e.g. the noun “building” can be used to replace the noun “forest” in the phrase “get out of the forest” without affecting the grammatical structure of the phrase.○3Co-occurrence同现关系refers to the relation between the words/phrases in a phrase/sentence, e.g. the relation between the words in the phrase “leave Guangzhou for Zhuhai”.2.Immediate constituents (直接成分) (p.76): Linguistic units that join and make up a higher unit (as related to the higher unit), e.g. the two parts “Mary” and “arrived on time” are immediate constituents of the sentence “Mary arrived on time”.3.Endocentric and exocentric constructions (向心结构与离心结构) (p.78)4. Grammatical category (语法范畴)(p.85): A feature or features that can distinguish one class of linguistic units from another, incl. number, gender, case, tense, voice, mood, comparative degree, etc.5. Recursiveness of language (递归性) (p.90): A creative feature of language that enables human to make an expression as long as needed by means of conjoining,embedding, subordination, etc. (Refer to creativity—a design feature)Chapter 5 MeaningMajor difference between sense and reference (p.97):(1)Sense (意义): abstract properties of an entity实体.Eg.猫(2)Reference (所指): a (non-linguistic) entity it refers to (in the real world). Eg.我家的白猫注：Functional words (虚词) usually have sense but not reference because they don’t refer to any entity in the real world.Sense relations (语义关系) and lexical meanings of words1.Sense relations (语义关系) (p.97):Sense relations refer to the relations between the senses of words in a language, including synonymy同义关系, antonymy反义关系, hyponymy上下义关系, etc.ponential analysis (语义成分分析法) (p.102): A method/theory applied to the analysis of the meanings/sensesof words in a language.3.Logical semantics (逻辑语义学) (p.108): A method/theory which applies the theory of logic to the analysis of the meanings of linguistic expressions at various levels in a language.Chapter 6Language and Cognition语言与认知1.Psycholinguistics (心理语言学) (p.117): The study of the psychological aspect of language, including the acquisition *ˌækwɪˈzɪʃn]习得, comprehension理解and production of language语言的生成.2.Cognitive [ˈkɒgnətɪv] linguistics (认知语言学) (p.129): The school of linguistics that aims at understanding language creation, learning, and usage as best explained by reference to human cognition in general.3.Construal[kən'stru:əl] and construal operations (识解与识解过程) (p.130): Construal refers to the ways people structure their experiences through language; we can interpret these ways through construal operations, including Attention / Salience (突显), Judgment / Comparison (比较), Perspective / Situatedness (位置), and Constitution / Gestalt (完形).4.Categorization*ˌkætəɡəraɪ'zeɪʃn] (范畴化) (p.132): The process of classifying our experiences into different kinds based on their commonalities共性and differences, including 3 basic levels: Basic (基本范畴), Superordinate (上位范畴) and Subordinate (下属范畴).5.Image schemas (意象图式) (p.134): A recurring, dynamic pre-conceptual pattern of the activities in the mind (our perceptual interactions and motor programs (运动程式) that gives coherence and structure to our experience, including Center-periphery schema (中心-边缘), containment schema (容器), cycle schema (循环), etc.通过感知相互作用以及动觉程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的反复出现的动态模式。
大学英语语言学 Chapter 4-From Word to Text
SYNTACTIC FORMS
Key terms: a) Constituents b) Grammatical Construction c) Immediate Constituents (IC) IC analysis and its main function:
disambiguity
COORDINATION
A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages. It is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. All the categories have equivalent syntactic status, and each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally. e.g., the lady or the tiger
A.
Syntagmatic / horizontal / chain / positional relation
B. Paradigmatic / vertical / choice / substitutability relation the sequential arrangement of words in a language, also C. Relation of co-occurence called word order. classes or sets of words or word partly belongs to syntagmatic relations, partly groups substitutable for each other to paradigmatic relations. It means that words grammatically in sentences with the of different sets or classes may permit, or same structure. require, the occurrence of a d of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence
《英语语言学》复习要点
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguisticsnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional. Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alternatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc.Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic words.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.☺the lower or the basic level---- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.☺the higher level ----morphemes and words which are meaningfulCreativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past present or future or in far away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, context,message, code, contact.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. What are the major differences between Saussure’s distinction betwe en langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation.According to N. Chomsky,Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence; Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It isconcerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language.Phonology aimsto discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication1. Lips2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈4. Hard palate 硬腭5. Soft palate (velum) 软腭6. Uvula 小舌7. Tip of tongue8. Blade of tongue 舌面9. Back of tongue10. V ocal cords 声带11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 12. Nasal cavity 鼻腔2.Phone （音素): the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme [ ] = phone { } = set of allophonesIPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet .Minimal pairs 最小对立体Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.e.g. a minimal pair: pat -fat; lit-lip; phone-toneminimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etcplementary distribution 互补分布Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.If they are two distinctive phonemes, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit];If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic contextSuprasegmental features 超音段特征—features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress （重音），length（音程）, rhythm （节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）及juncture（音渡）．Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology1. Word1.1 Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause orblank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit1.2 Identification of wordsSome factors can help us identify words:(1) Stability(2) Relative uninterruptibility(3) A minimum free form1.3 The classification of wordWords can be classified in terms of:(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词)The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article. the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)The traditionally recognized word classes are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word classes have been introduced into grammar: particles 小品词/语助词(go by, look for, come up);auxiliaries 助词(can, be, will);pro-form 替代词(do, so);determiners 前置词/ 限定词(all, every, few, plenty of, this).2. The formation of word2.1 Morphology 形态学Definition：Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The two fields (p64)Inflectional morphology: the study of inflectionsDerivational morphology: the study of word-formation3. Lexical change3.1 Lexical change proper（词本身的变化）Invention 新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation 缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词back-formation 逆构词analogical creation 类比造词Borrowing 借词、外来词definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Terminology 术语解释Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.Chapter 4 Syntax From Word to TextSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voicethree kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordinationCoordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can beexpressed by more than one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus.Chapter 6 Language and cognition1.What is Cognition?In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual with particular relation to a view that argues that the ming has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing.Another denefition is mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.3.What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2. Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3. A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4. In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy thecomparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of character of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphor is actually a cognitive tool that helps us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.2.Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.Language acquisition (1) Holophrastic stage（单词句阶段）–Language’s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.2) Two-word stage: around 18m3) Three-word-utterance stage4) Fluent grammatical conversation stageChapter 7 Language, culture and society1.the relationship between language and thought?Generally, the relation of L to C is that of part to whole, for L is part of C.The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L.There exists a close relationship between language and culture. This is evidenced by the findings of anthropologists such as Malinowski, Firth, Baos, Sapir and Whorf. The study of the relation between language and the context in which it is used is the cultural study of language.2.What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structural differentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Chapter 8 Language in usePragmatics: The study of language in use and the study of meaning in context, as well as the study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning& contextual meaning..What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Use one or two examples to discuss the violation of its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. CP is meant to describe whatactually happens in conversation. People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated. Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both linguistic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is, the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The former regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; The latter analyses utterances in close connection with their contexts of situation.2. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答： Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and he arer must take the context into their consideration so as to affect the right meaning and intention. T he development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expan sion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major diff erence between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics st udies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does n ot. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims give rise to conversational implicature?答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the ac cepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) . ② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation Be relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression. ② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.Chapter 9 Language and literature1.What is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elementsare to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence;-specific devices (as produced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 LinguisticsApplied linguistics: is the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of the ways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching. Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all Possible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without being taught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be. Syllabus: a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. Interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis: A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easyto learn and what will be difficult. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism. the Input Hypothesis: according to krashen's input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguisticsTransformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramInnateness hypothesis: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device(LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.CHOMSKY’S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1. Rationalism2. innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence 7. strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals。
04Chapter_4_gram
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1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence CoIt means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
NP Det N V S VP NP Det N
The girl ate the apple
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Word-level N=noun A=adjective V=verb P=preposition Det=determiner Adv=adverb Conj=conjunction
Phrasal NP=noun phrase AP=adjective phrase VP=verb phrase PP=preposition phrase S=sentence or clause
the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, and the connective (be + complement) construction.
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The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can smiled. substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.) He hid behind the door. (Neither door. constituent can function as an adverbial.) He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent ball. stands for the verb-object sequence.) verbJohn seemed angry. (After division, the angry. connective construction no longer exists.)
syntax新
From word to text 从语词到篇章 (syntax句法)
• 4.1 syntactic relations 句法关系 • Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: positional relations位置关系, relations of substitutability 替代关系and relations of cooccurrence同现关系. • 4.4.1positional relations位置关系 • Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.位置关系或词序指 一门语言中词语的排列顺序 If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an uttereance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.
From word to text 从语词到篇章 (syntax句法)
• 4.2 Grammatical construction and its co2.1 grammatical construction • Grammatical construction or construct can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.语法结构或建构用来指语言中被赋予一 种或多种功能的任何句法建构,包括在语言学上该 建构所拥有的常规意义和用法.
Chapter 4 (me)
inflectional affixes in English
1. Third Person Singular: "She plays the piano" 2. Past Tense: "She played the piano" 3. Progressive: "She is playing the piano now" 4. Past participle: "She has/had eaten the cookies" 5. Plural: "She has two pianos" 6. Possessive: "Mary's piano needs to be repaired" 7. Comparative: "Mary runs faster than Jack" 8. Superlative: "Mary is the fastest of all"
English lexicology chapter 4
6
Verbs ending in –d, -de, or –mit, take -sion (as in expansion, decision, omission). Allomorphs also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the first letter of the verb to which they will be added. A prefix like im- occurs before p, b, or m (e.g. imperfect, imbalance, immobile); its allomorphs are irbefore r (e.g. irresponsible); il- before l (e.g. illogical); in- before all other consonants and vowels (e.g. inflexible, inexcusable); im-, irand il- are thus allomorphs of the morpheme iner 4
语言学提纲笔记
Chapter 1 Invitation to LinguisticsLanguage The Definition(语言的定义)The Design Features Arbitrariness（本质特征）DualityCreativityDisplacement语言先天反射理论The Origin Of Language The bow-bow theory(语言的起源) The pooh-pooh theoryThe “yo-he-yo”theoryJacobos（与The Prague School一致）Referential Functions Of Language Ideational PoeticEmotiveHalliday Interpersonal ConativePhaticTextual MetalingualThe Basic Functions InformativeInterpersonalPerformativeEmotive functionPhatic communion(B.Malinowski 提出)Recreation functionMetalingual function Linguistics The DefinitionThe Main Branches of Linguistics Phonetics(微观语言学) PhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsMacrolinguistics Psycholinguistics(宏观语言学）SociolinguisticsAnthropological LinguisticsComputaioanl LinguisticsDescriptive &PrescriptiveSynchronic&DiachronicImportant Distinctions Langue&ParoleCompetence&PerformanceChapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学)语音学Auditory Phonetics(听觉语言学)Articulatory Phonetics(发声语音学)Speech Organs/Vocal organs(lungs ,trachea,throat,nose.mouth)IPA/Diacritics(变音符)Consonants The definitionThe manner of articulationArticulatory Phonetics The place of articulation(发声语音学)Vowels The definitionThe sound of English:RP/GACardinal vowelsThe requirements of descriptionCoarticulation Anticipatory CoarticulationPerseverative CoarticulationPhonetics transcription Narrow transcriptionBroad transcriptionPhonology 音位理论Minimal Pairs（c ut&p ut）Phone&Phonemes&Allophone(音素&音位&音位变体)音系学C omplementary DistributionFree variants(自由变体)/variation(自由变体现象)Phonological contrasts or opposition(音位对立)Distinctive Features(First developed by Jacobson as a meansof working out a set of phonological contrasts or opposition toCapture particular aspect of language sounds)progressive assimilationPhonological Process音系过程Assimilation Progressive assimilation音素是语音学研究的单位。
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 4 Syntax
式(Mood)
Mood involves a choice between indicative , imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic basis of the factuality. “式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动 词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据， 视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。
4.2 Categories
Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.
Grammatical Categories
The term “grammatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes. In TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc.
体(Aspect)
Aspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed. English has two aspect constructions, the perfective and the progressive, realised by “have +ed participle” and “be+-ing participle” respectively.
Syntax
The Grammatical Categories of Nouns (P85)
1. NUMBER a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes (N, V, Adj) displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, (单数，双数，复数) etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog/ dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs/ They laugh, this man/ these men.
传统语法把句子看成是词的序列，所以对句子 构成的研究很大一部分涉及词的研究，如词的 词性分类、词在句中主谓宾功能的划分等。词 的词性和词在句子中的功能都叫做范畴。 范畴是一个意义广泛的句法学概念，指的是在 语言结构某一层面上、能够区分开的语法单位 或词汇单位的任何类和任何系统。范畴有时候 指词类，有时候指和具体词类有关的语法特征 。
The word “syntax” is from the Ancient Greek sý ntaxis, is made up of two morphemes syn and tax . The former means “together” and the latter “to arrange”, hence the literal meaning “arrangement” or “a setting out together”. The core of syntax is the study of the structures of sentences. Different linguistic theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structures.
A_Textbook_of_Translation__(Chapter_1)
• I cannot make you into a good translator; I cannot cause you to write well. The best I can do is to suggest to you some general guidelines for translating. I shall propose a way of analyzing the source language text; I shall discuss the two basic translation methods; and I shall set out the various procedures for handling texts, sentences and other units. I shall at times discuss the relation between meaning, language, culture and translation. By offering plenty of examples I hope to provide enough practice for you to improve your performance as a translator.
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A text may therefore be pulled in ten different directions, as follows:
• 1) The individual style or idiolect of the SL author. When should it be (a) preserved, (b) normalized? • (2) The conventional grammatical and lexical usage for this type of text, depending on the topic and the situation. • (3) Content items referring specifically to the SL, or third language (i.e. not SL or TL) cultures. • (4) The typical format(版式) of a text in a book, periodical, newspaper, etc., as influenced by tradition at the time.
湖南省沅陵县第一中学2023-2024学年高二下学期期末考试英语试题(word版含答案)
2022级下学期期末考试（24年7月）高二英语试卷总分150分，考试时间120分钟注意事项：1.答题前，务必将自己的姓名、班级、准考证号填写在答题卡规定的位置上。
2.答选择题时，必须使用2B铅笔将答题卡上对应题目的答案标号涂黑，如需改动，用橡皮擦擦干净后，再选涂其它答案标号。
3.答非选择题时，必须使用0.5毫米黑色签字笔，将答案书写在答题卡规定的位置上。
4.所有题目必须在答题卡上作答，在试题卷上答题无效。
第一部分听力（共两节，满分30分）做题时，先将答案标在试卷上。
录音内容结束后，你将有两分钟的时间将试卷上的答案转涂到答题卡上。
第一节（共5小题；每小题1.5分，满分7.5分）听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。
听完每段对话后，你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1．How often does the dentist want the man to come for cleaning?A．Every six weeks.B．Every six months.C．Every twelve months.2．Why does the man make the call?A．To ask for information.B．To make an appointment.C．To send out an invitation.3．Why did Anna move out?A．She missed her parents.B．She was tired of sharing a flat.C．She wanted to live near the school.4．How does the woman go to work?A．By car.B．On foot.C．By bike.5．What is the probable relationship between the speakers?A．Classmates.B．Teacher and student.C．Doctor and patient.听下面一段较长对话，回答以下小题。
syntax
Word-level categories
Lexical categories N (noun) V (verb) A (adjective) P(preposition) Adv (adverb) Non-lexical categories Det (determiner) Deg (Degree) Qual (qualifier) Aux (auxiliary) Con (conjunction)
Conjoining embedding
4.7 Beyond the Sentence
4.7.1 Sentential Connection hypotactic Vs. paratactic 4.7.2 Cohesion
Noun complements
Complement option Sample heads example
Car, boy
The car__
PP
Memory, failure, death
The memory (of a friend)
PP PP
Presentation, description, The presentation (of a donation medal) (to the winner) Argument, discussion, conversation An argument with Stella about politics
Ex. State whether the following underlined constructions are headed or non-headed 1) Yesterday we went across a bridge damaged beyond repair. 2) The government consists of 20 departments. 3) the professor who plagiarized 4) the year to follow 5) the man who did come
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Horizontal relation
Associative/ Vertical / Choice relation
• Summary of Syntactic Relations
– Positional relation demonstrates the syntagmatic relation. – Relation of substitution demonstrates the relation of paradigmatic relation. – Relation of co-occurrence is partially syntagmatic and partially paradigmatic.
–I gave Tracy the book.
• A word may be said to have Syntagmatic relations with other words occurring in the same sentence.
• The word has Paradigmatic Relation （聚合 关系） with words that could be substituted for it in a sentence. e.g. •
Next Period
• Category（范畴） • Recursiveness（递归性） – Number (数) – Conjoining（连接） – Gender（性） – Embedding（嵌套） • Beyond the sentence – Case（格） – Sentential connection – Agreement (一致关系) • Phrase, clause and – Cohesion （衔接） sentence – Phrase – Clause （小句） – Sentence（句子）
Chapter Four From Word to Text
1
Review Production, transmission, and perception of sounds
Rules of sound patterning Rules of word formation ???
Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Interdisciplinary…
Production, transmission, and perception of sounds Rules of sound pattern Rules of word formation Rules of word and word groups in combining sentences ???
Questions hitting on you
• What is syntax?
– Syntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences, or the study of the relationships between elements in sentence structures.
Relation of substitutability（替代关系） • Firstly, it refers to class or sets of words substituted for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. • Secondly, it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word or a particular set. • The _____ smiles. • Man • Boy • Girl • The smiles. • strong man • Tallest boy • Pretty girl • He went there ____________. yesterday Last week The day before
• (preceded by)
– A pretty – The – The Asian
A
NP
girl boy man
B
(followed by)
smiles. sings. cries.
C
• 同现关系：小句中不同集合的词语允许或 要求和另一集合或类别中的词语一起组成 句子或句子的某一特定部分。
Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic
Part II
Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents
• Construction (构式): any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. on the level of syntax, we distinguish: – External syntax: property of the construction as a whole. – Internal syntax: description of the construction’s make-up. • Constituent（成分）is a linguistic unit (usu. in sentence analysis) which is part of a larger construction.
• Syntagmatic Relation (组合关系) is the relationship that linguistic units (words, clauses, etc.) have with other units, because they may occur together in a sequence. It was proposed by Saussure.
Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Interdisciplinary…
Question 2
What is this chapteyntactic relations（句法关系） – Positional relation（位置关系） – Relation of substitutability （替代性关系） – Relation of co-occurrence（同现关系） • Grammatical Construction （语法结构） – Grammatical construction – Immediate Constituents（直接成分） – Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions（向心结构和离 心结构） – Coordination and Subordination（并列关系和从属关系） • Syntactic Function （句法功能） – Subject （主语） – Predicate（谓语） – Object（宾语） – Relation between classes and functions
• 句法结构：语言中被赋予一种或多种功能 的任何句法建构，包括语言学上该建构所 拥有的常规意义和用法。 • 结构的外部句法特征指整体结构所具有的 特征。说话者所知道的在更大的句法上下 文中与此结构有关的方方面面。如小句类 型、短语类型、分别被赋予不同的结构特 征。 • 结构的内部句法特征即对结构组成成分的 描述。
Syntactic Relations(句法关系)
• Positional relation（位置关系） • The boy kicked the ball. • NP NP
(subject) (Direct Object)
• Position relation, or WORD ORDER（词序）, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. • Violation of positional relation –*Boy the ball kicked that. Ungrammatical Nonsense –*The ball kicked the boy. – The teacher saw the students. Grammatical but different in meaning – The students saw the teacher.
• 替代关系： • 首先，在相同结构的句子中，语法上可以 相互替代的词类或者语词的集合 • 其次，由多个词组成的词组，语法上代替 特定集合中的某个语词。
Relation of co-occurrence （同现关系） • The words of different sets of classes may permit, or require, the occurrence of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.