Working Paper No. Two Knowledge Base Management Systems and The Knowledge Warehouse A Straw
英美报刊选读_课文word整合版
Unit2 Gender IssuesMen turn to jobs women usually do 1.HOUSTON - Over the last decade, American menof all backgrounds have begun flocking to fields such as teaching, nursing and waiting tables that have long been the province of women.2."The way I look at it is that anything, basically,that a woman can do, a guy can do," said Miguel Alquicira, who graduated from high school when construction and manufacturing jobs were scarce and became a dental assistant.3.The trend began well before the crash,andappears to be driven by a variety of factors, including financial concerns, quality-of-life issues and a gradual erosion of g ender stereotypes.4.In interviews, about two dozen men played downthe economic considerations, saying that the stigma associated with choosing such jobs had faded, and that the jobs were appealing not just because they offered stable employment, but because they were more satisfying.5."I.T. is just killing viruses and clearing paper jamsall day," said Scott Kearney, 43, who tried information technology and other fields before becoming a nurse in the pediatric intensive care unit at Children's Memorial Hermann Hospital in Houston.6.An analysis of United States census data by TheNew York Times shows that from 2000 to 2010,occupations that are more than 70 percent female accounted for almost a third of all job growth for men, double the share of the previous decade.7.That does not mean that men are displacingwomen - those same jobs accounted for almost two-thirds of women's job growth. But in Texas, for example, the number of men who are registered nurses nearly doubled in that time period.8.The shift includes low-wage jobs as well.Nationally, two-thirds more men were bank tellers, almost twice as many were receptionists and two-thirds more were waiting tables in 2010 than a decade earlier.9.Even more striking is the type of men who aremaking the shift. From 1970 to 1990, according to a study by Mary Gatta, senior scholar at Wider Opportunities for Women, an organization based in Washington, D.C., and Patricia A. Roos, a sociologist at Rutgers University in New Jersey, men who took so-called pink-collar jobs tended to be foreign-born, non-English speakers with low education levels.10.Now, though, the trend has spread among men ofnearly all races and ages, more than a third of whom have a college degree. In fact, the shift is most pronounced among young, white, college-educated men like Charles Reed, a sixth-grade math teacher at Patrick Henry Middle School in Houston.11.Mr. Reed, 25, intended to go to law school after atwo-year stint with Teach for America, a nationalteacher corps of recent college graduates who spend two years helping under-resourced urban and rural public schools. But Mr. Reed fell in love with teaching. He says the recession had little to do with it, though he believes that, by limiting prospects for new law school graduates, it made his father, a lawyer, more accepting.12.To the extent that the shift to "women's work" hasbeen accelerated by recession, the change may reverse when the economy recovers. "Are boys today saying, 'I want to grow up and be a nurse?'"asked Heather Boushey, senior economist at the Center for American Progress. "Or are they saying, 'I want a job that's stable and recession-proof?'"13.Daniel Wilden, a 26-year-old Army veteran andnursing student, said he had gained respect for nursing when he saw a female medic use a Leatherman tool to save the life of his comrade."She was a beast," he said admiringly.14.More than a few men said their new jobs were farharder than they imagined. But these men can expect success. Men earn more than women even in female-dominated jobs. And white men in particular who enter those fields easily move up to supervisory positions, a phenomenon known as the glass escalator, said Adia Harvey Wingfield,a sociologist at Georgia State University.15."I hated my job every single day of my life," saidJohn Cook, 55, who got a modest inheritance that let him drop a $150,000-a-year database consultant's job to enter nursing school.16.His starting salary will be two thirds lower, butdatabase consulting does not typically earn hugs like the one Mr. Cook received from a girl after he took care of her premature baby sister. "It's like, people get paid for doing this kind of stuff?" Mr.Cook said, tears coming to his eyes as he recounted the episode.17.Several men cited the same reasons for seekingout pink-collar work that have drawn women to such careers: less stress and more time at home.At John G. Osborne Elementary School, Adrian Ortiz, 42, joked that he was one of the few Mexicans who made more in his native country, where he was a hard-working lawyer, than he did in the United States as a kindergarten teacher in a bilingual classroom. "Now," he said, "my priorities are family, 100 percent."18.Betsey Stevenson, a labor economist at theUniversity of Pennsylvania, said she was not surprised that changing gender roles at home, where studies show men are shouldering more of the domestic burden, are showing up in career choices. "We tend to study these patterns of what's going on in the family and what's going on in the workplace as separate, but they're very much intertwined," she said. "So as attitudes in the family change, attitudes toward the workplace have changed."19.In a classroom at Houston Community College,Dexter Rodriguez, 35, said his job in tech support had not been threatened by the tough economy.Nonetheless, he said, his family downsized the house, traded the new cars for used ones and began to live off savings, all so Mr. Rodriguez could train for a career he regarded as more exciting.20."I put myself into the recession," he said, "becauseI wanted to go to nursing school."Unit3 E-CommerceThe Post-Cash Economy1.In London, travelers can buy train tickets withtheir phones - and hold up the phones for the conductor to see. And in Starbucks coffee shops in the United States, customers can wave their phones in front of the cash register and pay for their soy chai lattes.2.Money is not what it used to be, thanks to theInternet. And the pocketbook may soon be destined for the dustbin of history - at least if some technology companies get their way.3.The cellphone increasingly contains theessentials of what we need to make transactions."Identification, payment and personal items," as Hal Varian, the chief economist at Google, pointed out in a new survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in Washington, D.C. "All this will easily fit in your mobile device and will inevitably do so."4.The phone holds and records plenty more vitalinformation: It keeps track of where you are, what you like and who your peers are. That data can all be leveraged to sell you things you never knew you needed.5.The survey, released last month by the PewResearch Center's Internet and American Life Project along with Elon University's Imagining the Internet Center in North Carolina, asked justover 1,000 technologists and social scientists to opine on the future of the wallet in 2020. Nearly two-thirds agreed that "cash and credit cards will have mostly disappeared" and been replaced with "smart" devices able to carry out a transaction.But a third of the survey respondents countered that consumers would fear for the security of transactions over a mobile device and worry about surrendering so much data about their purchasing habits.6.Sometimes, those with fewer options are the onesto embrace change the fastest. In Kenya, a service called M-Pesa (pesa is money in Swahili) acts likea banking system for those who may not have abank account. With a rudimentary cellphone, M-Pesa users can send and receive money through a network of money agents, including cellphone shops. And in India, several phone carriers allow their customers to pay utility bills and transfer small amounts of money over their cellphones. 7.Several technology companies, big and small, arebusy trying to make it easier for us to buy and sell all kinds of things without our wallets. A start-up, WePay, describes itself as a service that allows the smallest merchant - say, a dog walker - to get paid;the company verifies the reputations of payers and sellers by analyzing, among other things, their Facebook accounts.8. A British start-up, called Blockchain, offers a freeiPhone application allowing customers to use a crypto-currency called bitcoins, which users can mint on their computers.9. A company called Square began by offering asmall accessory to enable food cart vendors and other small merchants to accept credit cards on phones and iPads. Square's latest invention allows customers to register an account with Square merchants and pay simply by saying their names.The customer's picture pops up on the merchant's iPad.10.Google Wallet has been designed to sit in yourphone, be linked to your credit card, and let you pay by tapping your phone on a reader, using what is known as near field technology. But Google Wallet works on only four kinds of phones, and not many merchants are equipped for near field technology.11.Meanwhile, PayPal, which allows people to makepayments over the Internet, has quietly begun to persuade its users to turn to their cellphones.PayPal posted about $118 billion in total transactions last year and became the fastest-growing segment of eBay, its parent company. 12."The physical wallet, which had no innovation inthe last 50 years, will become an artifact," John J.Donahoe, the chief executive of eBay, told me recently. The wallet would move into the cloud, and ideally, from his perspective, into PayPal. No more would the consumer worry about losing a wallet. Everything, he declared, would be contained within PayPal. It would also enable the company to collect vast amounts of data about customer habits, purchases and budgets.13.Mr. Donahoe said he wanted his company tobecome "a mall in your pocket."14.I recently described PayPal's plans to AlessandroAcquisti, an economist who studies digital privacy at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh. Mr. Acquisti smiled. If today all you need to do is enter your phone number and PIN when you visit a store, perhaps tomorrow, he said, that store will be able to detect your phone by its unique identifier. Perhaps, you won't have to shop at all. Your shopping data would be instead collected, analyzed and used to tell you exactly what you need: a motorcycle from Ducati or purple rain boots in the next size for your growing child. Money will be seamlessly taken from your account. A delivery will arrive at your doorstep."In the future, maybe you won't have to pay," Mr.Acquisti offered, only half in jest."The transaction will be made for you."Unit4 Cultural ExchangeAsia’s Endangered Species: the Expat1.Forget expats. Western companies doing businessin Asia are now looking to locals to fill the most important jobs in the region.2.Behind the switch, experts say, are several factors,including a leveled playing field in which Western companies must approach newly empowered Asian companies and consumers as equals and clients—not just manufacturing partners.panies now want executives who can securedeals with local businesses and governments without the aid of a translator, and who understand that sitting through a three-hour dinner banquet is often a key part of the negotiating process in Asia, experts say.4.In fact, three out of four senior executives hired inAsia by multinationals were Asian natives already living in the region, according to a Spencer Stuart analysis of 1,500 placements made from 2005 to 2010. Just 6% were noncitizens from outside of Asia.5."It's a strategic necessity to be integrated in theculture. Otherwise, the time to learn all of it takes forever," said Arie Y. Lewin, a professor of strategy and international business at Duke University's Fuqua School of Business. He adds that locals may better navigate a business culture where copycats and competitors often play by different rules.6.What's more, a failed expatriate hire can be acostly mistake and slow a firm's progress in the region, said Phil Johnston, a managing director at recruiter Spencer Stuart.7.To help companies fill Asia-based executive roles,at least two search firms—Spencer Stuart and Korn/Ferry International—say they have begun classifying executives in four broad categories: Asia natives steeped in local culture but educated in the U.S. or Europe; the foreigner who has lived or worked in Asia for a long time; a person of Asian descent who was born or raised in a Western country but has had little exposure to Asia; and the local Asian executive who has no Western experience.8.For companies seeking local expertise, both firmssaid the first category is by far the most sought-after. But Mr. Johnston said those candidates are difficult to find and retain, and they can command salaries of $750,000 to $1 million—on par with, and sometimes more than, their expat counterparts.9.German conglomerate Siemens AG in 2010 hiredMei-Wei Cheng, a China-born Cornell University graduate, to head its Chinese operations—a role previously held by European executives.10.While Siemens's European executives had madeinroads with Chinese consumers—building sales in the region to nearly one-tenth of global revenue—the firm realized it needed someone who could quickly tap local business partners.11.After an extensive search, Siemens hired Mr.Cheng, formerly CEO at the Chinese subsidiariesof Ford Motor Co. and General Electric Co. GE 12.The decision to hire locally seems to have paidoff for Siemens: In his first 18 months on the job, Mr. Cheng forged two wind-power jointventures with Shanghai Electric Group Co.13.Mr. Cheng communicates easily with localofficials, a major advantage when it comes to selling energy technology to individual cities, says Brigitte Ederer, head of human resources for Siemens and a member of the company's managing board. Many local officials don't speak English.14.Bob Damon, president of recruiter Korn/FerryInternational's North American operations, said the current talent pool for executive roles is so limited that most top Asian executives simply rotate from one Western company to another, as Mr. Cheng did.15.Other companies are adding to the demand bycreating new positions in Asia. Campbell Soup Co.CPB last week announced the appointment of Daniel Saw as its first-ever president of Asia operations, while Canadian conglomerate Bombardier Inc. BBD.B.T hired Albert Li to fill a new role overseeing its aerospace business in China. Both executives were born in Asia and have worked as regional managers for Western multinationals.16.Meanwhile, younger Chinese professionals arepositioning themselves to meet the need for executive talent in the years to come. Nearly four in 10 American M.B.A. programs say China was their fastest-growing source of foreign applicants last year, according to the Graduate Management Admission Council, which administers the Graduate Management Admission Test.17.Foreigners with no Asia experience, on the otherhand, need not apply, recruiters said. Spencer Stuart's Mr. Johnston said he occasionally receives inquiries from Western middle managers, proclaiming that they are finally ready to make a career move to the region. He advises them that "there is nothing about their experience that is interesting or relevant to Asia."18.In hubs like Singapore and Hong Kong, expatsreceive as much as $200,000 a year in subsidies for housing, transportation and private schooling, Mr. Johnston said. Payments to offset taxes for these benefits add up to another $100,000.Altogether, a bad match can cost a company as much as $1 million, after figuring in relocation costs, he said.19.Monster Worldwide Inc. Chief Executive SalIannuzzi said the company has been hiring locally for several years, in part because he found deploying expatriates cost too much. "It takes them six months to figure out how to take a ferry, they're there for 12 months, and then they spend the next six months figuring out how to get home," he said.20.Like some other companies, Monster now tracksits own workers to ensure a pipeline of talent.21.The online job-search company's current head ofChina operations, Edward Lo, a former fraternity brother of Mr. Iannuzzi, understands the local scene, is well connected in China and knows how to recruit, Mr. Iannuzzi said. Among Mr. Lo's duties: finding his own successor before he retires.22.Starwood Hotels & Resorts Worldwide Inc. basedin White Plains, N.Y., also develops its own leaders for Asia, plucking people who have come up through the company ranks. For example, the head of Asia Pacific started in the 1970s on the finance team in Hong Kong, and the head of the Middle East region was a hotel manager who worked his way up.23.Having grown up in their markets, managersunderstand customer needs, said Starwood CEO Frits van Paasschen. Regional heads in China, for instance, know that when dealing with land owners or developers, deals are less "transactional," and more "trust-based," he said.They also know that Chinese travelers—who now comprise the majority of hotel guests in the region—feel more at home when they're supplied with tea kettles, slippers and chopsticks, he added.24.For fast-food company Yum Brands Inc. CEODavid Novak calls his Asia-bred regional head and executive team "our single biggest competitive advantage." China has become the company's biggest earnings driver, comprising more than 40% of operating profit.25.Thanks to Yum's China leaders, Mr. Novak says,KFC in China began serving rice porridge and soy milk for breakfast, and Pizza Hut now offers an afternoon tea menu—both of which have been big hits among local customers.Unit5 Auto-WorldThe Future of the Car :Clean, Safe and it Drives itselfCars have already changed the way we live. They are likely to do so again1.SOME inventions, like some species, seem tomake periodic leaps in progress. The car is one of them. Twenty-five years elapsed between Karl Benz beginning small-scale production of his original Motorwagen and the breakthrough, by Henry Ford and his engineers in 1913, that turned the car into the ubiquitous, mass-market item that has defined the modern urban landscape. By putting production of the Model T on moving assembly lines set into the floor of his factory in Detroit, Ford drastically cut the time needed to build it, and hence its cost. Thus began a revolution in personal mobility. Almost a billion cars now roll along the world’s highways.2.Today the car seems poised for another burst ofevolution. One way in which it is changing relates to its emissions. As emerging markets grow richer, legions of new consumers are clamouring for their first set of wheels. For the whole world to catch up with American levels of car ownership, the global fleet would have to quadruple. Even a fraction of that growth would present fearsome challenges, from congestion and the price of fuel to pollution and global warming.3.Yet, as our special report this week argues, stricterregulations and smarter technology are making cars cleaner, more fuel-efficient and safer than ever before. China, its cities choked in smog, is following Europe in imposing curbs on emissions of noxious nitrogen oxides and fine soot particles.Regulators in most big car markets are demanding deep cuts in the carbon dioxide emitted from carexhausts. And carmakers are being remarkably inventive in finding ways to comply.4.Granted, battery-powered cars have disappointed.They remain expensive, lack range and are sometimes dirtier than they look—for example, if they run on electricity from coal-fired power stations. But car companies are investing heavily in other clean technologies. Future motorists will have a widening choice of super-efficient petrol and diesel cars, hybrids (which switch between batteries and an internal-combustion engine) and models that run on natural gas or hydrogen. As for the purely electric car, its time will doubtless come.Towards the driverless, near-crashless car 5.Meanwhile, a variety of “driver assistance”technologies are appearing on new cars, which will not only take a lot of the stress out of driving in traffic but also prevent many accidents. More and more new cars can reverse-park, read traffic signs, maintain a safe distance in steady traffic and brake automatically to avoid crashes. Some carmakers are promising technology that detects pedestrians and cyclists, again overruling the driver and stopping the vehicle before it hits them.A number of firms, including Google, are busytrying to take driver assistance to its logical conclusion by creating cars that drive themselves to a chosen destination without a human at the controls. This is where it gets exciting.6.Sergey Brin, a co-founder of Google, predicts thatdriverless cars will be ready for sale to customers within five years. That may be optimistic, but the prototypes that Google already uses to ferry itsstaff (and a recent visitor from The Economist) along Californian freeways are impressive.Google is seeking to offer the world a driverless car built from scratch, but it is more likely to evolve, and be accepted by drivers, in stages.7.As sensors and assisted-driving softwaredemonstrate their ability to cut accidents, regulators will move to make them compulsory for all new cars. Insurers are already pressing motorists to accept black boxes that measure how carefully they drive: these will provide a mass of data which is likely to show that putting the car on autopilot is often safer than driving it. Computers never drive drunk or while texting.8.If and when cars go completely driverless—forthose who want this—the benefits will be enormous. Google gave a taste by putting a blind man in a prototype and filming him being driven off to buy takeaway tacos. Huge numbers of elderly and disabled people could regain their personal mobility. The young will not have to pay crippling motor insurance, because their reckless hands and feet will no longer touch the wheel or the accelerator. The colossal toll of deaths and injuries from road accidents—1.2m killed a year worldwide, and 2m hospital visits a year in America alone—should tumble down, along with the costs to health systems and insurers.9.Driverless cars should also ease congestion andsave fuel. Computers brake faster than humans.And they can sense when cars ahead of them are braking. So driverless cars will be able to drive much closer to each other than humans safely can.On motorways they could form fuel-efficient “road trains”, gliding along in the slipstream of the vehicle in front. People who commute by car will gain hours each day to work, rest or read a newspaper.Roadblocks ahead10.Some carmakers think this vision of the future is(as Henry Ford once said of history) bunk. People will be too terrified to hurtle down the motorway in a vehicle they do not control: computers crash, don’t they? Carmakers whose self-driving technology is implicated in accidents might face ruinously expensive lawsuits, and be put off continuing to develop it.11.Yet many people already travel, unwittingly, onplanes and trains that no longer need human drivers. As with those technologies, the shift towards driverless cars is taking place gradually.The cars’ software will learn the tricks that humans use to avoid hazards: for example, braking when a ball bounces into the road, because a child may be chasing it. Google’s self-driving cars have already clocked up over 700,000km, more than many humans ever drive;and everything they learn will become available to every other car using the software. As for the liability issue, the law should be changed to make sure that when cases arise, the courts take into account the overall safety benefits of self-driving technology.12.If the notion that the driverless car is round thecorner sounds far-fetched, remember that TV and heavier-than-air flying machines once did, too.One day people may wonder why earlier generations ever entrusted machines as dangerous as cars to operators as fallible as humans.Unit6 RomanceThe Modern Matchmakers现代红娘Internet dating sites claim to have brought scienceto the age-old question of how to pair offsuccessfully. But have they?互联网相亲网站声称已经将科技运用如何成功配对的问题之上。
Shulman--knowledge and teaching
Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New ReformLEE S. SHULMANStanford UniversityLee S. Shulman builds his foundation for teaching reform on an idea of teaching that emphasizes comprehension and reasoning, transformation and reflection. "This emphasis is justified," he writes, "by the resoluteness with which research and policy have so blatantly ignored those aspects of teaching in the past." To articulate and j ustify this conception, Shulman responds to four questions: What are the sources of the knowledge base for teaching? In what terms can these sources be conceptualized? What are the processes of pedagogical reasoning and action? and What are the implications for teaching policy and educational reform? The answers — informed by philosophy, psychology, and a growing body of casework based on young and experienced practitioners — go far beyond current reform assumptions and initiatives. The outcome f or educational practitioners, scholars, and policymakers is a major redirection in how teaching is to be understood and teachers are to be trained and evaluated.This article was selected f or the November 1986 special issue on "Teachers, Teaching, and Teacher Education," but appears here because of the exigencies of publishing.Prologue: A Portrait of ExpertiseRichly developed portrayals of expertise in teaching are rare. While many characterizations of effective teachers exist, most of these dwell on the teacher's management of the classroom. W e find few descriptions or analyses of teachers that give careful attention not only to the management of students in classrooms, but also to the management of ideas within classroom discourse. Both kinds of emphasis will be needed if our portrayals of good practice are to serve as sufficient guides to the design of better education. Let us examine one brief account.A twenty-five-year veteran English teacher, Nancy, was the subject of a continuing study of experienced teachers that we had been conducting. The class wasnearing the end of the second week of a unit on Moby Dick. The observer had beenwell impressed with the depth of Nancy's understanding of that novel and her skillas a pedagogue, as she documented how Nancy helped a group of California highschool juniors grasp the many faces of that masterpiece. Nancy was a highly activeteacher, whose classroom style employed substantial interaction with her students, Harvard Educational Review Vol. 57 No. 1 February 1987Copyright © by President and Fellows of Harvard College0017—8055/87/0200-0001$01.25/01Harvard Educational Reviewboth through recitations and more open-ended discussion. She was like a symphony conductor, posing questions, probing for alternative views, drawing out the shy while tempering the boisterous. Not much happened in the classroom that did not pass through Nancy, whose pacing and ordering, structuring and expanding, controlled the rhythm of classroom life.Nancy characterized her treatment of literature in terms of a general theoretical model that she employed.Basically, I break reading skills into four levels:Level 1 is simply translation. . . . It is understanding the literal meaning,denotative, and frequently for students that means getting a dictionary.Level 2 is connotative meaning and again you are still looking at the words.. . . What does that mean, what does that tell us about the character? . . .We looked at The Scarlet Letter. Hawthorne described a rose bush in the firstchapter. Literal level is: What is a rose bush? More important, what does arose bush suggest, what is it that comes to mind, what did you picture?Level 3 is the level of interpretation . . . . It is the implication of Levels 1 and2. If the author is using a symbol, what does that say about his view of life?In Moby Dick, the example I used in class was the boots. The boots would bethe literal level. What does it mean when he gets under the bed? And the students would say, he is trying to hide something. Level 3 would be what doesMelville say about human nature? What is the implication of this? What doesthis tell us about this character?Level 4 is what I call application and evaluation and I try, as I teach literature,to get the students to Level 4, and that is where they take the literature andsee how it has meaning for their own lives. Where would we see that eventoccur in our own society? How would people that we know be behaving ifthey are doing what these characters are doing? How is this piece of literaturesimilar to our common experiences as human beings? . . . So my view ofreading is basically to take them from the literal on the page to making itmean something in their lives. In teaching literature I am always working inand out of those levels. (Gudmundsdottir, in preparation)Nancy employed this conceptual framework in her teaching, using it to guide her own sequencing of material and formulation of questions. She taught the framework explicitly to her students over the semester, helping them employ it like a scaffolding to organize their own study of the texts, to monitor their own thinking. Although as a teacher she maintained tight control of the classroom discourse, her teaching goals were to liberate her students' minds through literacy, eventually to use great works of literature to illuminate their own lives. Whichever work she was teaching, she understood how to organize it, frame it for teaching, divide it appropriately for assignments and activities. She seemed to possess a mental index for these books she had taught so often — The Red Badge of Courage, Moby Dick, The Scarlet Letter, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn — with key episodes organized in her mind for different pedagogical purposes, different levels of difficulty, different kinds of pupils, different themes or emphases. Her combination of subject-matter understanding and pedagogical skill was quite dazzling.When the observer arrived at the classroom one morning, she found Nancy sitting at her desk as usual. But her morning greeting elicited no response from Nancy other than a grimace and motion toward the pad of paper on her desktop."I have laryngitis this morning and will not be able to speak aloud," said the note. 2Knowledge and TeachingLEE S. SHULMANWhat's more, she appeared to be fighting the flu, for she had little energy. Fora teacher who managed her classroom through the power of her voice and hermanner, this was certainly a disabling condition. Or was it?Using a combination of handwritten notes and whispers, she divided the class into small groups by rows, a tactic she had used twice before during this unit.Each group was given a different character who has a prominent role in the firstchapters of the novel, and each group was expected to answer a series of questionsabout that character. Ample time was used at the end of the period for representatives of each group to report to the whole class. Once again the class had runsmoothly, and the subject matter had been treated with care. But the style hadchanged radically, an utterly different teaching technology was employed, andstill the students were engaged, and learning appeared to occur.Subsequently, we were to see many more examples of Nancy's flexible style, adapted to the characteristics of learners, the complexities of subject matter, andher own physical condition. When learners experienced serious problems with aparticular text, she self-consciously stayed at the lower levels of the reading ladder,helping the students with denotative and connotative meanings, while emphasizing literary interpretations somewhat less. When teaching Huck Finn, a novel shesaw as less difficult than Moby Dick, her style changed once again. She gave muchmore autonomy to the students and did not directly run the classroom as much.For Huck Finn, she abandoned the stage early on and let the students teacheach other. She had the students working independently in eight multi-abilitygroups, each group tracing one of eight themes: hypocrisy; luck and superstition; greed and materialism; romantic ideas and fantasy; religion and theBible; social class and customs; family, racism, and prejudice; freedom andconscience. There were only two reading checks at the beginning and onlytwo rounds of reporting. Once the groups were underway, Nancy took a seatat the back of the class and only interacted with students when she was calledupon, and during group presentations. (Gudmundsdottir, in preparation)Thus Nancy's pattern of instruction, her style of teaching, is not uniform or predictable in some simple sense. She flexibly responds to the difficulty and characterof the subject matter, the capacities of the students (which can change even overthe span of a single course), and her educational purposes. She can not only conduct her orchestra from the podium, she can sit back and watch it play with virtuosity by itself.What does Nancy believe, understand, and know how to do that permits her to teach as she does?C a n other teachers be prepared to teach with such skill? The hope that teaching like Nancy's can become typical instead of unusual motivates much of the effort in the newly proposed reforms of teaching.T h e New ReformsDuring the past year the U.S. public and its professional educators have been presented with several reports on how to improve teaching as both an activity and a profession. One of the recurring themes of these reports has been the professionalization of teaching — the elevation of teaching to a more respected, more responsible, more rewarding and better rewarded occupation. T h e claim that teaching deserves professional status, however, is based on a more fundamental premise: that the standards by which the education and performance of teachers must be3Harvard Educational Reviewjudged can be raised and more clearly articulated. The advocates of professional reform base their arguments on the belief that there exists a "knowledge base for teaching" — a codified or codifiable aggregation of knowledge, skill, understanding, and technology, of ethics and disposition, of collective responsibility — as well as a means for representing and communicating it. The reports of the Holmes Group (1986) and the Carnegie Task Force (1986) rest on this belief and, furthermore, claim that the knowledge base is growing. They argue that it should frame teacher education and directly inform teaching practice.The rhetoric regarding the knowledge base, however, rarely specifies the character of such knowledge. It does not say what teachers should know, do, understand, or profess that will render teaching more than a form of individual labor, let alone be considered among the learned professions.In this paper, I present an argument regarding the content, character, and sources for a knowledge base of teaching that suggests an answer to the question of the intellectual, practical, and normative basis for the professionalization of teaching. The questions that focus the argument are: What are the sources of the knowledge base for teaching? In what terms can these sources be conceptualized? What are the implications for teaching policy and educational reform?1 In addressing these questions I am following in the footsteps of many eminent scholars, including Dewey (1904), Scheffler (1965), Green (1971), Fenstermacher (1978), Smith (1980), and Schwab (1983), among others. Their discussions of what qualities and understandings, skills and abilities, and what traits and sensibilities render someone a competent teacher have continued to echo in the conference rooms of educators for generations. My approach has been conditioned, as well, by two current projects: a study of how new teachers learn to teach and an attempt to develop a national board for teaching.First, for the past three years, my colleagues and I have been watching knowledge of pedagogy and content grow in the minds of young men and women. They have generously permitted us to observe and follow their eventful journeys from being teacher education students to becoming neophyte teachers. In this research, we are taking advantage of the kinds of insights Piaget provided from his investigations of knowledge growth. H e discovered that he could learn a great deal about knowledge and its development from careful observation of the very young — those who were just beginning to develop and organize their intelligence. We are following this lead by studying those just learning to teach. Their development from students to teachers, from a state of expertise as learners through a novitiate as teachers exposes and highlights the complex bodies of knowledge and skill needed to function effectively as a teacher. The result is that error, success, and refinement — in a word, teacher-knowledge growth — are seen in high profile and in slow motion. The neophyte's stumble becomes the scholar's window.Concurrently, we have found and explored cases of veteran teachers such as Nancy (Baxter, in preparation; Gudmundsdottir, in preparation; Hashweh, 1985)1 Most of the empirical work on which this essay rests has been conducted with secondary-school teachers, both new and experienced. While I firmly believe that much of the emphasis to be found here on the centrality of content knowledge in pedagogy holds reasonably well for the elementary level as well, I am reluctant to make that claim too boldly. Work currently underway at the elementary level, both by Leinhardt (1983) and her colleagues (for example, Leinhardt & Greeno, 1985; Leinhardt & Smith, 1986) and by our own research group, may help clarify this matter.4Knowledge and TeachingLEE S. SHULMANto compare with those of the novices. What these studies show is that the knowledge, understanding, and skill we see displayed haltingly, and occasionally masterfully, among beginners are often demonstrated with ease by the expert. But, as we have wrestled with our cases, we have repeatedly asked what teachers knew (or failed to know) that permitted them to teach in a particular manner.Second, for much of the past year, I have engaged in quite a different project on the role of knowledge in teaching. In conjunction with the recent Carnegie initiative for the reform of the teaching profession, my colleagues and I have been studying ways to design a national board assessment for teaching, parallel in several ways to the National Board of Medical Examiners (Shulman & Sykes, 1986; Sykes, 1986). This challenge renders the questions about the definition and operationalization of knowledge in teaching as far more than academic exercises. If teachers are to be certified on the basis of well-grounded judgments and standards, then those standards on which a national board relies must be legitimized by three factors: they must be closely tied to the findings of scholarship in the academic disciplines that form the curriculum (such as English, physics, and history) as well as those that serve as foundations for the process of education (such as psychology, sociology, or philosophy); they must possess intuitive credibility (or "face validity") in the opinions of the professional community in whose interests they have been designed; and they must relate to the appropriate normative conceptions of teaching and teacher education.The new reform proposals carry assumptions about the knowledge base for teaching: when advocates of reform suggest that requirements for the education of teachers should be augmented and periods of training lengthened, they assume there must be something substantial to be learned. When they recommend that standards be raised and a system of examinations introduced, they assume there must exist a body of knowledge and skill to examine. Our research and that of others (for example, Berliner, 1986; Leinhardt & Greeno, 1986) have identified the sources and suggested outlines of that knowledge base. Watching veterans such as Nancy teach the same material that poses difficulties for novice teachers helped focus our attention on what kinds of knowledge and skill were needed to teach demanding materials well. By focusing on the teaching of particular topics — Huck Finn, quadratic equations, the Indian subcontinent, photosynthesis — we learned how particular kinds of content knowledge and pedagogical strategies necessarily interacted in the minds of teachers.What follows is a discussion of the sources and outlines of the required knowledge base for teaching. I divide this discussion into two distinct analyses. First, after providing an overview of one framework for a knowledge base for teaching, I examine the sources of that knowledge base, that is, the domains of scholarship and experience from which teachers may draw their understanding. Second, I explore the processes of pedagogical reasoning and action within which such teacher knowledge is used.The Knowledge BaseBegin a discussion on the knowledge base of teaching, and several related questions immediately arise: What knowledge base? Is enough known about teaching to support a knowledge base? Isn't teaching little more than personal style, artful5Harvard Educational Reviewcommunication, knowing some subject matter, and applying the results of recent research on teaching effectiveness? Only the last of these, the findings of research on effective teaching, is typically deemed a legitimate part of a knowledge base.The actions of both policymakers and teacher educators in the past have been consistent with the formulation that teaching requires basic skills, content knowledge, and general pedagogical skills. Assessments of teachers in most states consist of some combination of basic-skills tests, an examination of competence in subject matter, and observations in the classroom to ensure that certain kinds of general teaching behavior are present. In this manner, I would argue, teaching is trivialized, its complexities ignored, and its demands diminished. Teachers themselves have difficulty in articulating what they know and how they know it.Nevertheless, the policy community at present continues to hold that the skills needed for teaching are those identified in the empirical research on teaching effectiveness. This research, summarized by Brophy and Good (1986), Gage (1986), and Rosenshine and Stevens (1986), was conducted within the psychological research tradition. It assumes that complex forms of situation-specific human performance can be understood in terms of the workings of underlying generic processes. In a study of teaching context, the research, therefore, seeks to identify those general forms of teaching behavior that correlate with student performance on standardized tests, whether in descriptive or experimental studies. The investigators who conduct the research realize that important simplifications must be made, but they believe that these are necessary steps for conducting scientific studies. Critical features of teaching, such as the subject matter being taught, the classroom context, the physical and psychological characteristics of the students, or the accomplishment of purposes not readily assessed on standardized tests, are typically ignored in the quest for general principles of effective teaching.When policymakers have sought "research-based" definitions of good teaching to serve as the basis for teacher tests or systems of classroom observation, the lists of teacher behaviors that had been identified as effective in the empirical research were translated into the desirable competencies for classroom teachers. They became items on tests or on classroom-observation scales. They were accorded legitimacy because they had been "confirmed by research." While the researchers understood the findings to be simplified and incomplete, the policy community accepted them as sufficient for the definitions of standards.For example, some research had indicated that students achieved more when teachers explicitly informed them of the lesson's objective. This seems like a perfectly reasonable finding. When translated into policy, however, classroom-observation competency-rating scales asked whether the teacher had written the objective on the blackboard and/or directly told the student the objectives at the beginning of class. If the teacher had not, he or she was marked off for failing to demonstrate a desired competency. No effort was made to discover whether the withholding of an objective might have been consistent with the form of the lesson being organized or delivered.Moreover, those who hold with bifurcating content and teaching processes have once again introduced into policy what had been merely an act of scholarly convenience and simplification in the research. Teaching processes were observed and evaluated without reference to the adequacy or accuracy of the ideas transmitted.6Knowledge and TeachingLEE S. SHULMANIn many cases, observers were not expected to have content expertise in the areas being observed, because it did not matter for the rating of teacher performance. Thus, what may have been an acceptable strategy for research became an unacceptable policy for teacher evaluation.In this paper I argue that the results of research on effective teaching, while valuable, are not the sole source of evidence on which to base a definition of the knowledge base of teaching. Those sources should be understood to be far richer and more extensive. Indeed, properly understood, the actual and potential sources for a knowledge base are so plentiful that our question should not be, Is there really much one needs to know in order to teach? Rather, it should express our wonder at how the extensive knowledge of teaching can be learned at all during the brief period allotted to teacher preparation. Much of the rest of this paper provides the details of the argument that there exists an elaborate knowledge base for teaching.A View of TeachingI begin with the formulation that the capacity to teach centers around the following commonplaces of teaching, paraphrased from Fenstermacher (1986). A teacher knows something not understood by others, presumably the students. The teacher can transform understanding, performance skills, or desired attitudes or values into pedagogical representations and actions. These are ways of talking, showing, enacting, or otherwise representing ideas so that the unknowing can come to know, those without understanding can comprehend and discern, and the unskilled can become adept. Thus, teaching necessarily begins with a teacher's understanding of what is to be learned and how it is to be taught. It proceeds through a series of activities during which the students are provided specific instruction and opportunities for learning,2 though the learning itself ultimately remains the responsibility of the students. Teaching ends with new comprehension by both the teacher and the student.3 Although this is certainly a core conception of teaching, it is also an incomplete conception. Teaching must properly be understood to be more than the enhancement of understanding; but if it is not even that, then ques-2 There are several aspects of this formulation that are unfortunate, if only for the impression they may leave. The rhetoric of the analysis, for example, is not meant to suggest that education is reduced to knowledge transmission, the conveying of information from an active teacher to a passive learner, and that this information is viewed as product rather than process.M y conception of teaching is not limited to direct instruction. Indeed, my affinity for discovery learning and inquiry teaching is both enthusiastic and ancient (for example, Shulman & Keislar, 1966). Yet even in those most student-centered forms of education, where much of the initiative is in the hands of the students, there is little room for teacher ignorance. Indeed, we have reason to believe that teacher comprehension is even more critical for the inquiry-oriented classroom than for its more didactic alternative.Central to my concept of teaching are the objectives of students learning how to understand and solve problems, learning to think critically and creatively as well as learning facts, principles, and rules of procedure. Finally, I understand that the learning of subject matter is often not an end in itself, but rather a vehicle employed in the service of other goals. Nevertheless, at least at the secondary level, subject matter is a nearly universal vehicle for instruction, whatever the ultimate goal.3 This formulation is drawn from the teacher's perspective and, hence, may be viewed by some readers as overly teacher-centered. I do not mean to diminish the centrality of student learning for the process of education, nor the priority that must be given to student learning over teacher comprehension. But our analyses of effective teaching must recognize that outcomes for teachers as well as pupils must be considered in any adequate treatment of educational outcomes.7Harvard Educational Reviewtions regarding performance of its other functions remain moot. The next step is to outline the categories of knowledge that underlie the teacher understanding needed to promote comprehension among students.Categories of t h e Knowledge BaseIf teacher knowledge were to be organized into a handbook, an encyclopedia, or some other format for arraying knowledge, what would the category headings look like?4 At minimum, they would include:— content knowledge;— general pedagogical knowledge, with special reference to those broad principlesand strategies of classroom management and organization that appear to transcend subject matter;— curriculum knowledge, with particular grasp of the materials and programsthat serve as "tools of the trade" for teachers;— pedagogical content knowledge, that special amalgam of content and pedagogythat is uniquely the province of teachers, their own special form of professionalunderstanding;— knowledge of learners and their characteristics;— knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from the workings of the group orclassroom, the governance and f inancing o f school districts, to the character ofcommunities and cultures; and— knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values, and their philosophicaland historical grounds.Among those categories, pedagogical content knowledge is of special interest because it identifies the distinctive bodies of knowledge for teaching. It represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction. Pedagogical content knowledge is the category most likely to distinguish the understanding of the content specialist from that of the pedagogue. While far more can be said regarding the categories of a knowledge base for teaching, elucidation of them is not a central purpose of this paper.Enumerating t h e SourcesThere are at least four major sources for the teaching knowledge base: (1) scholarship in content disciplines, (2) the materials and settings of the institutionalized educational process (for example, curricula, textbooks, school organizations and finance, and the structure of the teaching profession), (3) research on schooling, social organizations, human learning, teaching and development, and the other social and cultural phenomena that affect what teachers can do, and (4) the wisdom of practice itself. Let me elaborate on each of these.Scholarship in content disciplines. The first source of the knowledge base is content knowledge — the knowledge, understanding, skill, and disposition that are to be4 I have attempted this list in other publications, though, admittedly, not with great cross-article consistency (for example, Shulman, 1986b; Shulman & Sykes, 1986; Wilson, Shulman & Richert, in press).8。
英语唱歌自我介绍
英语唱歌自我介绍篇一：英文自我介绍首先，准备英语面试时的自我介绍，要特别注意两点：一、条理清楚、用词准确。
二、真实展现自己的本质，不要用夸大或吹嘘的词语。
有些人喜欢在做英语自我介绍时夸张地表现自己的优点，甚至把根本没有做过的事情也说出来，其实这是一种很冒险的行为。
虽然你的自我介绍会给面试官留下重要的第一印象，但是过度浮夸或者失实，会让面试官对你的个人诚信产生怀疑从而断然淘汰你。
一般情况下，在外企英语面试的时候，往往已开始面试官就会让你做自我介绍，他会问：canyousellyourselfintwominutes？（你能用两分钟做个自我推荐吗？）对于这一两分钟的自我介绍，你完全可以提前准备好。
【文章内容:英语唱歌自我介绍),ibeginworkforasmallprivatecompanyasatechnicalsupportengineerinQi ngdaocity.Becausei'mcapableofmoreresponsibilities,soidecidedtoch angemyjob.andinaugust20XX,ileftQingdaotoBeiJingandworkedforaforeignenterprise asaautomationsoftwaretestengineer.Becauseiwanttochangemyworkingenv ironment,i'dliketofindajobwhichismorechallenging.morovermotorol aisaglobalcompany,soifeelicangainthemostfromworkinginthiskindofcomp anyennvironment.Thatisthereasonwhyicomeheretocompeteforthisposition.ithinki'magoodteamplayerandi'mapersonofgreathonestytoothe rs.alsoiamabletoworkundergreatpressure.赞同15|评论(2)20XX-3-414:39滕晓婷|一级goodmorning!itismygreatpleasuretohavethisopportunityforaninterview.ih opethaticanmakeagoodperformancetoday.i'mconfidentthaticansucce d.nowiwillintroducemyselfbriefy.*****************************than ks.hopeyoucangivemeaanswerasap.赞同4|评论(1)20XX-4-916:13一线口语_Emma|六级选择面试口语班可参考1.有效的英语环境allEnglishEnvironment2.灵活的学习时间FlexibleTimetable3.个性化的课程设置Personalizedcourse4.完善的教学支持及跟进系统SophisticatedTrackingSystem5.学习效果保证GuaranteedLearningResults参加口语班可点击LoGo咨询我们的专家赞同5|评论(2)20XX-4-923:31热心网友英文自我介绍：%2Eurl7%2Eme/vc86?.mp3篇二：面试英语自我介绍模板面试Englishintroduction__英文自我介绍模板__1.Goodmorning,interviewers!itisreallymyhonortohavethisopportunityfora ninterview.ihopeicanmakeagoodperformancetoday.i'mconfidentthati cansucceed.nowiwillintroducemyselfbriefly.iam26yearsold,borninShandongprovince. igraduatedfromQingdaoUniversity.mymajoriselectronics.andigotmybache lordegreeaftermygraduationintheyearof20XX.ispentmostofmytimeonstud y,andi’vepassedcET-6duringmyuniversity.andi’veacquiredbasicknowledgeofmymajor.itismylongcherisheddreamtobeanengineerandiameagertogetanopportunitytofullyplaymyability.inJuly20XX,ibeganworkingforasmallprivatecompanyasatechnicalsupport engineerinQingdaocity.Becausetherewasnomorechanceformetogivefullpla ytomytalent,soidecidedtochangemyjob.andinaugust20XX,ileftforBeijinga ndworkedforaforeignenterpriseasanautomationsoftwaretestengineer.Beca useiwanttochangemyworkingenvironment,i'dliketofindajobwhichis morechallenging.moreover，motorolaisaglobalcompany,soifeelicangainalotfromworkinginthiskindofc ompany.Thatisthereasonwhyicomeheretocompeteforthisposition.ithinki& #39;magoodteamplayerandapersonofgreathonestytoothers.also，iamabletoworkundergreatpressure.iamconfidentthatiamqualifiedforthepos tofengineerinyourcompany.That’sall.Thankyouforgivingmethechance.2.goodmorning,mynameisjack,itisreallyagreathonortohavethisopportunity forainterview,iwouldliketoanswerwhateveryoumayraise,andihopeicanmak eagoodperformancetoday,eventuallyeollinthisprestigiousuniversityinsepte mber.nowiwillintroducemyselfbriefly,iam21yearsold,borninHeiLongJiangprovi nce,northeastofchina,andiamcurruentlyaseniorstudentatBeiJingxxuniversity.m ymajorispackagingengineering.andiwillreceivemybachelordegreeaftermygraduat ioninJune.inthepast4years,ispendmostofmytimeonstudy,ihavepassedcET4 /6withaease.andihaveacquiredbasicknowledgeofpackagingandpublishingb othintheoryandinpractice.besides,ihaveattendseveralpackagingexhibitionh oldinBeijing,thisisouradvantagestudyhere,ihavetakenatourtosomebigfacto ryandcompany.throughtheseihaveadeeplyunderstandingofdomesticpackag paredtodevelopedcountriessuchasus,unfortunately,althoug hwehavemadeextraordinaryprogresssince1978,ourpackagingindustryarest illunderdeveloped,mess,unstable,thesituationofemployeesinthisfieldareaw kward.butihavefullconfidenceinabrightfutureifonlyoureconomycankeepth egrowthpacestill.iguessyoumaybeinterestedinthereasonitchtolaw,andwhati smyplanduringgraduatestudylife,iwouldliketotellyouthatpursuelawisoneof mylifelonggoal,ilikemymajorpackagingandiwontgiveup,ificanpursuemym asterdegreehereiwillcombinelawwithmyformereducation.iwillworkhardint hesefields,patent,trademark,copyright,onthebaseofmyyearsstudyindepart mentofp&p.mycharacter?icannotdescribeitwell,butiknowiamoptimisticandconfident.s ometimesiprefertostayalone,reading,listeningtomusic,butiamnotlonely,iliketochatwithmyclassm ates,almosttalkeverything,myfavoritepastimeisvolleyball,playingcardsors urfonline.throughcollegelife,ilearnhowtobalancebetween studyandentertainment.bytheway,iwasaactorofouramazingdramaclub.ihadafewgloriousmemoryonstage.thatismypride首先，准备英语面试时的自我介绍，要特别注意两点：一、条理清楚、用词准确。
选读文献书目
一、经济增长与经济周期实际经济周期模型RBC：1）、20世纪70、80年代，以基德兰德Kydland、普雷斯科特Prescott（1982）的开创性论文Time to Build and Aggregate FluctuationsAuthor(s): Finn E. Kydland and Edward C. PrescottSource: Econometrica, Vol. 50, No. 6 (Nov., 1982), pp. 1345-13702）其他相关重要文献选读International Real Business CyclesAuthor(s): David K. Backus, Patrick J. Kehoe, Finn E. KydlandSource: The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 100, No. 4 (Aug., 1992), pp. 745-775Published by: The University of Chicago PressInternational Business Cycles：Theory and EvidenceAuthor(s): David K. Backus, Patrick J. Kehoe, Finn E. KydlandSource: Working Paper No.4493/ The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Economic Research Papers, Quarterly Review 1742 Fall 1993Tastes and Technology in a Two—Country Model of the Business Cycle：Explaining International ComovementsAuthor(s): Stockman，Alan C．and Linda L．Tesar(1995)，Source: American Economic Review，Vo1．85，No．1，168—185．The International Transmission of Real Business CyclesAuthor(s):Richard Cantor and Nelson C.Mark (1988), ,Source: International Economic Review, Vol. 29, No.3, Aug. 1988, PP493-507International Transmission and Real Business Cycle ModelsAuthor(s):Alan C. Stockman (1990)Source: The American Economic Review，May 1990，Vol.80 No.2, 134-138Real Business Cycles in a Small Open EconomyAuthor(s):Enrique G. Mendoza，1991Source: The American Economic Review, Vol. 81, No. 4 (Sep., 1991), pp. 797-818International trade and business cycle: Is vertical specialization the missing link?Author(s): Kose & Yi （2001）Source: The American Economic Review，May 2001，Vol.91 No.2, 371-375二、新贸易理论1、标志性论文Scale Economies, Product Differentiation, and the Pattern of TradeAuthor(s): Paul KrugmanSource: The American Economic Review, Vol. 70, No. 5 (Dec., 1980), pp. 950-9592、其他相关重要文献选读Welfare Analysis of the Krugman Model of TradeAuthor(s): Costas Arkolakis, Svetlana Demidova, Pete Klenow and Andrés Rodríguez-Clare, March 14, 2008Monopolistic Competition and Optimum Product DiversityAuthor(s): Avinash K.Dixit and Joseph E. StiglitzSource: The American Economic Review, Vol. 67, No. 3 (June, 1977), pp. 297-308Plant- and Firm-level Evidence on the New Trade TheoriesAuthor(s): Tybout, J. (2001).Source: NBER Working Paper No. 8418. In Choi, E. and J. Harrigan (eds). Handbook of International Trade. Oxford: Basil-Blackwell, 2003.三、新新贸易理论1、Theoretical Models with Firm Heterogeneity——企业异质性与贸易的理论文献1）企业异质性的基本理论模型：The Basic Model. Melitz (2003)The Impact of Trade on Intra-Industry Reallocations and Aggregate Industry Productivity.* Melitz, M. (2003).Econometrica 71(6), p.1695-725.2）其他相关重要文献选读The Model with Multiple Sectors——多部门模型Comparative Advantage and Heterogeneous Firms* Bernard, A., Redding, S. and P. Schott (2007).Review of Economic Studies 74.Distorted Gravity: The Intensive and Extensive Margins of International Trade* Chaney, T. (2008).American Economic Review 98(4), p.1707-21.The Endogenous Mark-ups Model——内生溢价模型Market Size, Trade and Productivity*Melitz, M. and G. Ottaviano (2008). Review of Economic Studies 75(1), p.295-316.Plants and Productivity in International Trade.*Bernard, A., Eaton, J., Jensen, B. and S. Kortum (2003). American Economic Review 93(4), p.1268-90.Market Access Costs and the New Consumers Margin in International TradeArkolakis, C. (2007). Yale University mimeo.2、Empirical Evidence on Firm Heterogeneity——企业异质性与贸易的实证文献1）Firm Level Evidence IImporters, Exporters, and Multinationals: A Portrait of Firms in the U.S. that Trade Goods.*Bernard, A., Jensen, B. and P. Schott (2007). In Dunne, T., Jensen, B. and M. Roberts (eds). Producer Dynamics: New Evidence from Micro Data. University of Chicago Press, 2008.Exporters, Jobs and Wages in U.S. Manufacturing, 1976-1987.*Bernard, A. and B. Jensen (1995). Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics.An Anatomy of International Trade: Evidence from French Firms* Eaton, J., Kortum, S. and F. Kramarz (2004a). New York University mimeo.Dissecting Trade: Firms, Industries, and Export Destinations.* Eaton, J., Kortum, S. and F. Kramarz (2004b). American Economic Review P&P 94, p.150-4.2）Firm Level Evidence IITrade Liberalization, Exit, and Productivity Improvements: Evidence from Chilean Plants*Pavcnik, N.(2002). The Review of Economic Studies 69, p.245-76.贸易自由化和工资不平等Entry and Exit Decision under Uncertainty* Dixit, A. (1989a). Journal of Political Economy 97(3), p.620-38.沉没成本相关The Decision to Export in Colombia: An Empirical Model of Entry with Sunk Costs* Roberts, M. and J. Tybout (1997). American Economic Review 87(4), p.545-64.沉没成本相关The Margins of Entry into Exports Markets: Evidence from Columbia*Eaton, J., Eslava, M., Kugler, M. and J. Tybout (2008). Forthcoming in Helpman, E., Marin, D. and T. Verdier (eds). The Organization of Firms in a Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.3）Country Level Evidence.Estimating Trade Flows: Trading Partners and Trading Volumes* Helpman, E., Melitz, M. and Y. Rubinstein (2008). Quarterly Journal of Economics 123, p.441-87.Globalization and the Gains from Variety* Broda, C. and D. Weinstein (2006). Quarterly Journal of Economics 121(2).The Variety and Quality of a Nation’s Exports*Hummels, D. and P. Klenow (2005). American Economic Review 95, p.704-23.4）Multiproduct FirmsMulti-Product Firms and Product Switching*Bernard, A., Redding, S. and P. Schott (2009). American Economic Review, forthcoming.Multi-Product Firms and Trade Liberalization*Bernard, A., Redding, S. and P. Schott (2006a). NBER Working Paper 12782.Products and ProductivityBernard, A., Redding, S. and P. Schott (2006b). Dartmouth Tuck mimeo.5）Quality and TradeExport Prices and Heterogeneous Firm Models*Manova, K. (2008). Stanford Unviersity mimeo.Trade, Quality Upgrading and Wage Inequality in the Mexican Manufacturing Sector*Verhoogen, E. (2008). Quarterly Journal of Economics 123 (2), p. 489-530.The Quality-Complementarity Hypothesis: Theory and Evidence from Colombia* Kugler, M. and E. Verhoogen (2008). NBER Working Paper 14418.四、增加值贸易（trade in value added）重要文献Measuring Trade in Value Added when Production is Fragmented across Countries: An OverviewAaditya Mattoo, Zhi Wang and Shang-Jin WeiTowards the Measurement of Trade in Value-Added Terms: Policy Rationale and Methodological ChallengesSébastien Miroudot and Norihiko YamanoAccounting for Intermediates: Production Sharing and Trade in Value AddedRobert C. Johnson and Guillermo NogueraEstimating Domestic Content in Exports when Processing Trade Is PervasiveRobert Koopman, Zhi Wang and Shang-Jin WeiForeign and Domestic Content in Mexico’s Manufacturing ExportsJustino De La Cruz, Robert B. Koopman, Zhi Wang and Shang-Jin WeiGravity Chains: Estimating Bilateral Trade Flows when Trade in Components and Parts Is ImportantRichard E. Baldwin and Daria TaglioniUsing Trade Microdata to Improve Trade in Value-Added Measures: Proof of Concept Using Turkish DataNadim Ahmad, Sónia Araújo, Alessia Lo Turco and Daniela MaggioniDeveloping International Input–Output Databases: IDE-JETRO and OECD ExperiencesSatoshi Inomata, Norihiko Yamano and Bo MengA Three-Stage Reconciliation Method to Construct a Time Series International Input–Output DatabaseNadim Ahmad, Zhi Wang and Norihiko YamanoDirect Measurement of Global Value Chains: Collecting Product- and Firm-Level Statistics on Value Added and Business Function Outsourcing and OffshoringTimothy J. Sturgeon, Peter Bøegh Nielsen, Greg Linden, Gary Gereffi and Clair Brown。
By
Working Paper No. ThreeThe Metaprise, The AKMS, and The Enterprise KnowledgePortalByJoseph M. Firestone, Ph.D.Executive Information Systems, Inc.eisai@Revised March 16, 2000© 1999-2000 Executive Information Systems, Inc...IntroductionThis is a paper about four terms: The Metaprise, the Artficial KnowledgeManagement System (AKMS), the Enterprise Information Portal (EIP), andthe Enterprise Knowledge Portal (EKP). They’re important terms. TheMetaprise is short-hand for the 21st Century knowledge-managed,knowledge innovating organization, The AKMS is the name of acomprehensive type of IT application supporting Knowledge Management.It is at the foundation of the KMC’s AKMS Standards Sub-Committee. EIPis a new software application and investment space identified by MerrillLynch. And the EKP is a type of EIP segmenting that space. In this paperI’ll lay out the relationships among these terms and develop a conceptmap including all of them. The map will show the convergence ofterminology on a new and, I hope, powerful construct: the Metaprise asthe knowledge-managing, knowledge-innovating organization of the 21stCentury supported by an Enterprise Knowledge Portal system as itscentral AKMS application.The MetapriseDefinitionFigure One provides an overview of a Knowledge Life Cycle model begunin collaboration with Mark McElroy, Edward Swanstrom, Douglas Weidner, and Steve Cavaleri [1], during meetings sponsored by the Knowledge Management Consortium International (KMCI), and further developed recently by Mark McElroy and myself [2]. Knowledge Production and Knowledge Integration are core knowledge processes in the model. Knowledge Production produces Validated Knowledge Claims (VKCs), Unvalidated Knowledge Claims (UKCs), and Invalidated Knowledge Claims (IKCs), and information about the status of these. Organizational Knowledge (OK) is composed of all of the foregoing results of knowledge production. It is what is integrated into the enterprise by the Knowledge Integration process.Figure One -- The Knowledge Life Cycle Model (Overview)The knowledge integration process, in turn, produces the Distributed Organizational Knowledge Base (DOKB) and the DOKB, in its turn, has a major impact on structures incorporating organizational knowledge such as business processes and information systems. Coupled with external sources these structures then feed back to impact Knowledge Production at a later time -- which is why it’s called the Knowledge Life Cycle (KLC) model.Drilling down into knowledge production (figure two), the KLC view is that information acquisition, and individual and group learning, impact on knowledge claim formulation, which, in turn, produces Codified Knowledge Claims (CKCs). These, in their turn, are tested in the knowledge validation sub-process, which produces organizational knowledge. Individual andgroup learning may involve knowledge production from the perspective ofthe individual or group, but from the perspective of the enterprise, what the2individuals and groups learn is information, not knowledge. Similarly information acquired may be knowledge from the perspective of the external parties it is acquired from.Figure Two -- The Components of Knowledge Production Drilling down into knowledge integration (figure three), organizational knowledge is integrated across the enterprise by the broadcasting, searching/retrieving, teaching, and sharing sub-processes. These generally work in parallel rather than sequentially. And not all arenecessary to a specific instance of the KLC. All may be based in personalnon-electronic or electronic interactions.3Figure Three -- The Components of Knowledge IntegrationHere is a glossary of the major terms used in the KLC Model.Sidebar One: Glossary for Figures One - ThreeCodified Knowledge Claims - Information that has been codified, and is claimed to be true, but which has not yet been subjected to organizational validation.Distributed Organizational Knowledge Base -an abstract construct representing the outcome of knowledge integration.The DOKB is found everywhere in the enterprise, not merely in electronic repositories.Experiential Feedback Loops - Processes by which information concerning the outcomes of organizational learning activities are fed back into the knowledge production phase of an organization’s knowledge life cycle as a useful reference for future action.Individual and Group Learning - A process involving human interaction, knowledge claim formulation, and validation by which new individual and/or group level knowledge is created.Information About Invalidated Knowledge Claims -Information that asserts the existence of invalidated knowledge claims and the circumstances under which such knowledge was invalidated.Information About Unvalidated Knowledge Claims -Information thats asserts the existence of unvalidated knowledge claims, and the circumstances under which such knowledge was tested and neither validated nor invalidated.Information About Validated Knowledge Claims -Information that asserts the existence of validated knowledge claims and the circumstances under which such knowledge was validated.Information Acquisition - A process by which an organization either deliberately or serendipitously acquires knowledge claims or information produced by others external to the organization.Invalidated Knowledge - A collection of codified invalidated knowledge claims.4Invalidated Knowledge Claims - Codified knowledge claims that have not satisfied an organization’s validation criteria. Falsehoods.Knowledge Claim - A codified expression of potential knowledge which may be held as validated knowledge at an individual and/or group level, but which has not yet been subjected to a validation process at an organizational level. Information. Knowledge claims are components of hierarchical networks of rules, that if validated would become the basis for organizational or agent behavior.Knowledge Claim Formulation - A process involving human interaction by which new organizational knowledge claims are formulated.Knowledge Integration - The process by which an organization introduces new knowledge claims to its operating environment and retires old ones. Knowledge Integration includes all knowledge transmission, teaching, knowledge sharing, and other social activity that communicates either an understanding of previously produced organizational knowledge to knowledge workers, or the knowledge that certain sets of knowledge claims have been tested, and that they and information about their validity strength is available in the organizational knowledge base, or some degree of understanding between these alternatives. Knowledge integration processes, therefore, may also include the transmission and integration of information.Knowledge Production - A process by which new organizational knowledge is created, discovered, or made. Synonymous with "organizational learning."Knowledge Validation Process - A process by which knowledge claims are subjected to organizational criteria to determine their value and veracity.Organizational Knowledge - A complex network of validated knowledge claims held by an organization, consisting of declarative and procedural rules.Organizational Learning - A process involving human interaction, knowledge claim formulation, and validation by which new organizational knowledge is created. (business) Structures Incorporating Organizational56Knowledge - Outcomes of organizational system interaction.The organization behaves through these structures includingbusiness processes, strategic plans, authority structures,information systems, policies and procedures, etc. Knowledgestructures exist within these business structures and are theparticular configurations of knowledge found in them.Unvalidated Knowledge Claims - Codified knowledge claimsthat have not satisfied an organization’s validation criteria, butwhich were not invalidated either. Knowledge claims requiringfurther study.Validated Knowledge Claims - Codified knowledge claimsthat have best satisfied an organization’s validation criteriacompared to other, competing, knowledge claims. "Truth" aswe currently know it.The Knowledge Management Process (KMP) is an on-going persistent interaction among human-based agents within the Natural Knowledge Management System (NKMS) [3]. The KMP is distinct from other interactions of the NKMS. Agents participating in it aim at integrating its agents, various components, and activities into a planned, directed,unified whole producing, maintaining, enhancing, acquiring, and transmitting the enterprise's knowledge base. Knowledge Management is human activity that is part of the interaction constituting the KMP.Figure Four -- The Metaprise -- TheKnowledge Managing, Knowledge Innovating OrganizationA Metaprise [1] [4] is an organization that has implemented an authoritative and formal Knowledge Management Process that not only manages knowledge processes, but also manages itself and its own rate of innovation. The Metaprise therefore contains at least two legitimated levels of process activity above the knowledge process level. The first analyzes and manages what occurs at the fundamental knowledge process level of interaction, and the second does the same at the knowledge management process level of interaction as well. In short, the Metaprise is the knowledge-managing, knowledge-innovating organization. It is illustrated in Figure Four.KM as a discipline needs a short hand expression to refer to the knowledge-managing, knowledge innovating organization. The term "Metaprise" is a good choice. It recognizes the existence in some organizations of the "meta" or formal KM activity level over and above the fundamental knowledge process level of interaction, and also the existence of other levels above the KM activity level that manage and control innovation at the KM activity level.Formal KM activity is activity dedicated to shaping the direction of the NKMS. It is not fundamental knowledge process activity. But it is independent of it and about it. Organizations that have formal KM activity, have taken a deliberate and conscious step toward growing and institutionalizing organizational intelligence, adaptability, creativity, and learning. Assuming their success in implementing their KMP, they are much more nearly 21st Century "intelligent enterprises" than their competitors. But if they implement the KM activity level alone, they are still not Metaprises, but only pre-metaprises. To become a Metaprise, they still must implement at least another level of KM process activity in addition to first level KM. This is necessary to produce new knowledge about knowledge production, or, in other words, to innovate about the rate of innovationAmong Metaprises we can distinguish types along two important dimensions, thereby providing the basis of a useful classification. The first is the number of levels of knowledge management interaction a Metaprise, has implemented. The second is the breadth of knowledge management activities it has implemented at each level.Levels of Knowledge ManagementBy levels of knowledge management interaction, I mean to distinguish multiple levels of KM process activity arranged in a hierarchy. In principle, and, at least with respect to knowledge production, the hierarchy has an infinite number of levels [5]. The hierarchy is generated by considerations similar to those specified by Bertrand Russell [6] in his theory of types,7and Gregory Bateson [7] in his theory of learning and communication. Knowledge processes occur at the same level of agent interaction as other business processes. Let's call this business process level of interaction Level Zero of enterprise Complex Adaptive System (cas) interaction [8]. At this level, pre-existing knowledge is used by business processes and by knowledge processes to implement activity. And, in addition, knowledge processes produce and integrate knowledge about business processes using (a) previously produced knowledge about how to implement these knowledge processes, (b) infrastructure, (c) staff, and (d) technology, whose purpose is to provide the foundation for knowledge production and knowledge integration at level zero. But from where does this infrastructure, staff, knowledge, and technology come. Who manages them, and how are they changed?They don't come from, by and through the level zero knowledge processes -- these only produce, transfer, and acquire knowledge about business processes such as the sales, marketing or manufacturing processes. So, this is where Level One of cas interaction, the lowest level of knowledge management comes in.This level one KM process interaction is responsible for producing, and integrating knowledge about Level Zero knowledge production and integration processes to knowledge workers at Level Zero. It is this knowledge which is used at both Level Zero and Level One to implement knowledge processes and KM knowledge and information processing. Let’s call this level one knowledge the Enterprise Knowledge Management (EKM) model.The KM process and EKM model at Level One are also responsible for providing the knowledge infrastructure, staff, and technology necessary for implementing knowledge processes at Level Zero. In turn, knowledge processes at Level Zero use this infrastructure, staff, and technology to produce and integrate the knowledge used by the business processes. The relationships between level one KM and level zero knowledge and business processes are illustrated in Figure Five.Knowledge about level zero knowledge processes, as well as infrastructure, staff, and technology change when level one KMP interactions introduce changes. That is, changes occur: when the level one KMP produces, and integrates new knowledge about how to implement level zero knowledge processes; and when it adds or subtracts from the existing infrastructure, staff, and technology based on new knowledge it produces. There are two possible sources of these changes.8Figure Five -- Level Zero/Level One KM Process Relationships First, knowledge production at Level One can change the EKM model, which, in turn, impacts on (a) knowledge about how to produce or integrate knowledge about (Level Zero) business processes, (b) knowledge about how to acquire information or integrate knowledge about Level One information acquisition or integration processes (c) staffing, (d) infrastructure, and (e) technology. This type of change then, originates in the KM Level One process interaction itself.Second, knowledge expressed in the EKM model about how to produce knowledge at Level One may change. This knowledge however, is only used in arriving at the Level One EKM model. It is not explained or accounted for by it. It is determined, instead by a KM Level Two process and is accounted for in a Level Two EKM model produced by this interaction. Figure Six adds the KM Level Two process to the process relationships previously shown in Figure Five.Instead of labeling the three levels of processes discussed so far as Level Zero, Level One, and Level Two, it is more descriptive to think of them as the knowledge process level, the KM or meta-knowledge process level, and the meta-KM level of process interaction. There is no end, in principle, to the hierarchy of levels of process interaction and accompanying EKM models. The number of levels we choose to model and to describe, will bedetermined by how complete an explanation of knowledge managementactivity we need to accomplish our purposes.9Figure Six -- Level Zero --Level Two KM Process Relationships§ The knowledge process level produces knowledge about business processes, and uses knowledge about how to produce (how to innovate) knowledge about business processes. This level cannot change knowledge about how to produce knowledge. It can change knowledge about business processes.§ The KM (pre-metaprise, meta-knowledge) process level produces the knowledge about how to produce knowledge about business processes, and uses knowledge about how to produce KM level knowledge about how to produce knowledge about business processes. This level can change knowledge about how to produce knowledge, but cannot change knowledge about how to produce KM-level knowledge.§ The meta-KM (first Metaprise level) produces: (a) knowledge about how to produce knowledge about KM knowledge processes, and (b) knowledge about how to produce KM level knowledge about how to produce knowledge about knowledge processes. It uses knowledge about how to produce Meta-KM level knowledge about how to produce knowledge about KM knowledge processes. This level can change knowledge about how to produce KM-level knowledge, but cannot change knowledge about how to produce Meta-KM level knowledge.§ Level Three, the meta-meta-KM process level of interaction produces knowledge about how to produce Meta-KM level-produced knowledgeabout how to produce knowledge about KM knowledge processes, anduses Meta-Meta KM level-produced knowledge about how to produce10knowledge about Meta-KM level knowledge processes. This level can change knowledge about how to produce Meta-KM level knowledge, but cannot change knowledge about how to produce Meta-Meta KM level knowledge.Level Three then, seems to be the minimum number of levels needed for a view of KM allowing one to change (accelerate) the rate of change in KM level knowledge. And in some situations, where we need even more leverage over our knowledge about how to arrive at knowledge about KM processes, we may even need to go to a fourth (meta-meta-meta-) KM level.Distinctions among metaprises according to the Level of Knowledge Management practiced in them, lets us talk about pre-Metaprises, Level One Metaprises, Level Two Metaprises and so on. It should be possible to usefully characterize the successful 21st century intelligent enterprise, at least on a business domain specific basis, as a Level X Metaprise, when we have more empirical evidence on how many KM levels are needed for competitiveness in any business domain.Thus, the relative effectiveness of Metaprises at different levels is an empirical question, not something we should assume as given. While it’s very likely that effectiveness will increase as Metaprises move from Level One to higher levels, there may be a point at which diminishing returns set in. Or there may even be a point at which movement up the ladder of levels leads to negative returns relative to the investment required to add a KM level, or leads to fewer returns than alternative investments in other areas. ROI considerations must apply to Metaprise KM enhancements, as well as to other Metaprise business processes.Breadth of KM ProcessesBy breadth of knowledge management processes, I mean the extent to which all of the major KM activities are implemented at any specified level of the Metaprise. So what are these major KM activities? Here’s a conceptual framework that begins to specify them.§ Business process activities may be viewed as sequentially linked and as governed by validated rule sets, or knowledge. [1] [3] [9][10]§ A linked sequence of activities performed by one or more agents sharing at least one objective is a Task.§ A linked sequence of tasks governed by validated rule sets, producing results of measurable value to the agent or agents11performing the tasks is a Task Pattern.§ A cluster of task patterns, not necessarily performed sequentially, often performed iteratively and incrementally, is a Task Cluster.§ Finally, a hierarchical network of interrelated, purposive, activities of intelligent agents that transforms inputs into valued outcomes, acluster of task clusters, is a business process.The activity to business process hierarchy is illustrated in Figure Seven.Figure Seven -- The Activity To Business Process Hierarchy This hierarchy, ranging from activities to processes, applies to knowledge and KM processes as well as to operational business processes. Enterprise KM activities may be usefully categorized according to a scheme of task clusters which, with some additions and changes, generally follows Mintzberg [11]. There are three types of KM task clusters: interpersonal behavior, information (and knowledge) processing behavior, and decision making. Each type of task cluster is broken down further into more specific types of task pattern activities in the text below.Interpersonal Behavior§ Interpersonal Behavior includes figurehead or ceremonial KM activity.This activity focuses on performing formal KM acts such as signingcontracts, attending public functions on behalf of the enterprise's KM12process, and representing the KM process to dignitaries visiting the enterprise.§ A second type of interpersonal activity is leadership. This includes hiring, training, motivating, monitoring, and evaluating staff. It also includes persuading non-KM agents within the enterprise of the validity of KM process activities. That is, KM activity includes building political support for KM and knowledge processes within the enterprise.§ A third type of interpersonal KM activity is building relationships with individuals and organizations external to the enterprise. This is another political activity designed to build status for KM and to cultivate external sources of support for KM.Knowledge and Information Processing§Knowledge Production is a KM as well as a knowledge process. KM knowledge production is different in that it is here that the rules for knowledge production that are used at the level of knowledge processes are specified. Keep in mind that knowledge production at this level involves planning, descriptive, cause-and-effect, predictive, and assessment knowledge about the two fundamental level zero knowledge processes, as well as these categories of knowledge about level one interpersonal, knowledge integration, and decision making KM activities. The only knowledge not produced by level one knowledge production, is knowledge about how to accomplish knowledge production at Level One. Once again, the rules constituting this last type of knowledge are produced at Level Two.§ KM Knowledge Integration is affected by KM knowledge production, and also affects knowledge production activities by stimulating new ones. KM knowledge integration at any KM level also plays the critical role of diffusing "how-to" knowledge to lower KM and knowledge process levels.Decision Making Activities•Changing knowledge process rules at lower KM and knowledge process levels. Essentially this involves making the decision to change such rules and causing both the new rules and the mandate to use them to be transferred to the lower level.§Crisis Handling would involve such things as meeting CEO requests for new competitive intelligence in an area of high strategic interest for an enterprise, and directing rapid development of a KM support infrastructure in response to requests from high level executives,13§Allocating Resources for KM support infrastructures, training, professional conferences, salaries for KM staff, funds for new KMprograms, etc.§Negotiating agreements with representatives of business processes over levels of effort for KM, the shape of KM programs, the ROIexpected of KM activities, etc.Altogether, there are nine KM activities in the three task clusters. This classification is probably not complete. There are likely other activities, as well as other task clusters I have overlooked. When we come up with a better classification, we will then have the capability to define types of Metaprises based on both variation in levels of KM, and in the breadth of KM task clusters and activities that are implemented. This should give us a fairly rich two-dimensional classification of Metaprises, which we can then further segment by performance and other characteristics as seems appropriate.The Artificial Knowledge Management System (AKMS)The AKMS supports the NKMS of the Metaprise, along with its formal knowledge Management process. It is designed to manage the integration of computer hardware, software, and networking objects/components into a functioning whole, supporting enterprise knowledge production, and integration processes. The AKMS, in other words, supports producing, and integrating the enterprise's knowledge base. The enterprise's knowledge base, in turn, is used by its agents to perform Knowledge, Knowledge Management, and other business processes. I’ve defined and described the AKMS and its key component, the Artificial Knowledge Manager (AKM) in more detail elsewhere [12]. The basic architecture of the AKMS has been developed in a "strawman" version by the Knowledge Management Consortium (KMC) and is illustrated in Figure Eight.It shows clients, application servers, communication buses and data stores integrated through a single logical component called an Artificial Knowledge Manager (AKM). The AKM performs its central integrative functions by providing process control and distribution services, an Active, In-memory Object Model supplemented by a persistent object store, and Connectivity Services to provide for passing data, information, and knowledge from one component to another. A more concrete visual picture showing the variety of component types in the AKMS, is provided in Figure Nine.1415Figure Eight -- KMC "Straw Man" AKMS ArchitectureFigure Nine -- Components of the AKMSSidebar Two: Figure Nine Abbreviations Web= Web Information Server Pub = Publication & Delivery ServerKDD = Knowledge Discovery in Databases/ DataMining ServersETML = Extraction, Transformation, Migration andLoadingDDS = Dynamic Data Staging AreaDW = Data WarehouseODS = Operational Data StoreERP = Enterprise Resource PlanningQuery = Query and Reporting ServerCTS = Component Transaction ServerBPE = Business Process EngineROLAP = Relational Online Analytical ProcessingAn important difference between the two figures is that the communications bus aspect of the AKMS is implicit in Figure Nine, where I have assumed that the AKM incorporates it. The AKM provides the computing framework necessary to dynamically integrate the Metaprise’s computing support for KM activities and processes. Figure Nine makes plain the diversity of component types in the Metaprise’s AKMS. It is because of this diversity and its rapid rate of growth in the last few years that the AKM becomes necessary. Change in the AKMS’s components and objects can be introduced through so many sources that if the AKMS is to adapt to change, it needs an integrative component like the AKM to play the major role in its integration and adaptation.The Key Architectural Components of the AKMS are:§ The Artificial Knowledge Manager (AKM);§ Stateless Application Servers;§ Application Servers that maintain State;§ Object/Data Stores;§ Object Request Brokers (e.g., CORBA, DCOM); and§ Client Application Components.In order to provide the flavor of the AKMS I’ll briefly describe these various components (with the exception of client application components) below.The AKM16An AKM provides Process Control Services, an Object Model of the Artificial Knowledge Management System (AKMS) (the system corresponding to the AKMS architecture), and Connectivity to all metaprise information, data stores, and applications. What I mean by these terms is covered in detail in [12]. Here a brief outline should provide at least a flavor of the AKM sufficient to develop AKMS connections to the Metaprise and Enterprise Knowledge Portals.Process Control Services include:§ In-memory proactive object state management and synchronization across distributed objects and throughintelligent agents;§ Component management and work flow management through intelligent agents§ Transactional multi-threading;§ business rule management and processing; and§ metadata management.An In-memory Active Object Model/Persistent Object Store is characterized by:§ Event-driven behavior;§ AKMS-wide model with shared representation;§ Declarative as well as procedural business rules;§ Caching along with partial instantiation of objects;§ A Persistent Object Store for the AKM;§ Reflexive Objects.Connectivity Services should have:§ Language APIs: C, C++, Java, CORBA, COM;§ Databases: Relational, ODBC, OODBMS, hierarchical, network, flat file, etc.;§ Wrapper connectivity for application software: custom, CORBA, or COM-based; and§ Applications connectivity including all the categories mentioned in Figure Nine above, whether these are mainframe, server, ordesktop - based.17。
纸业专业英语词汇翻译(M1)
纸业专业英语词汇翻译(M1)纸业专业英语词汇翻译(M1)纸业专业英语词汇翻译(M1)m paper 次品纸macaroni paper 通心粉包装纸macaroni wrapping paper 通心粉包装纸machine broke 纸机损纸machine coated paper （纸）机上涂布纸machine creped paper （纸）机上皱纹纸machine finish book paper 纸机整饰书籍纸machine finish(ed) paper （纸）机上光泽纸machine finish cover 双面光封皮纸machine glazed paper 有光纸machine glazed litho 纸机光泽平版印刷纸machine made paper 机制纸machine glazed poster 纸机光泽广告纸machine made deckle-edge paper 纸机制毛边纸machine posting index 机用信片索引纸machine posting ledger 机用帐簿纸machine treated butchers paper 机制加工包肉纸magazine paper(for printing imitation) 画报印刷纸magazine cover paper 一杂志封面纸magazine news 杂志新闻纸magnetic ink character reader paper 磁性墨水文字阅读器用纸magnetic phonographic recording paper 磁带录音纸magnetic recording tape paper 磁性录音带纸magnetic recording paper 磁性录音带纸magnetically sensitive recording paper 磁感记录纸magnetized paper 磁性纸makeready papeer 印样用纸makeready tissue 印样用纸manifold paper 打字纸manila paper 一马尼拉纸，高强度纸张manila bristol 马尼拉光泽卡片纸manila drawing paper 淡黄色图画纸manila for oilling 马尼拉油纸原纸manila rope paper 马尼拉纸绳纸manila rope shipping sack paper 马尼拉麻色包装运输纸manila tag 马尼拉卡纸manila tissue 马尼拉薄纸manuscript cover 手稿封皮纸map paper 地图纸marble(glazed) 玳瑁蜡光纸marbled paper 大理石花纹纸margarine wrapper 人造黄油包装纸maritime(chart) paper 海图纸market paper 商品包装纸masking paper 复面纸；遮蔽纸massey paper 机上涂布纸match(box) paper 火柴盒纸match book cover paper 火柴本封面纸match label paper 火柴盒用商标纸matrix paper 字型纸matrix tissue paper 字型薄纸matt paper 无光泽纸matt art paper 无光泽美术matt coated(for printing) 无光泽印刷涂布纸measuring tape paper 测试纸带纸meat wrapper 肉类包装纸mechanical paper 含磨木浆的纸张mechanical deckle edge paper 机械加工切边的纸张mechanical and electrical fibre 机械和电气用钢纸medicated paper 加药品的纸张medieval laid 仿条纹纸medium fine printing paper 中等质量印刷纸mellow paper 调温纸张melton mounts 麦尔登台纸memo covers 备忘录书皮纸merchants brand 商业商标纸message blank 通讯用纸matachromtype paper 变色纸metal fiber paper 金属纤维纸；金属箔纸metal foilbody paper 金属箔纸原纸metallic paper 金属（涂布）纸metallic blotting 金属面吸墨纸matallic bronze 青铜纸metallized paper 拟金属纸meter paper 仪表用纸m.f. paper 双面光纸m.g. paper 有光纸m.g.offset paper 单面胶版印刷纸m.g.wrapping paper 鸡皮纸mica paper 云母纸mica base paper 云母带原纸mice coated paper 云母涂布纸micr paper 磁性墨水文字阅读器用纸microfilm enlargement positive paper 微胶卷放大纸microsphere paper 松厚纸middle fine ptinting paper 中等质量印刷纸mildew proof paper 防霉纸mill edge 纸边millimeter paper 标纸mimeo paper 复写纸mimeograph paper 复印纸mimeotypw stencil paper 打印蜡纸mineral fiber paper 矿物纤维纸mixed paper 杂废纸modified paper 变性纸moist recording paper 温式记录纸；渔群探测记录纸；河海探深记录纸moist proof paper 防潮纸mosture barrier bulding paper 防潮建筑纸mold made paper 模制纸mold resistant paper 防霉纸monotype paper 自动铸字机用纸mounting cards paper 裱贴卡纸morocco paper 仿摩洛哥皮纸morse paper 莫尔斯电报纸mother of pearl paper 贝壳纸mothproof paper 防虫纸,防蛀纸mottled paper 灰衬纸,花岗石纹纸mould paper 字型纸mould made paper 仿手工纸mould resistant paper 防霉纸mounting paper 裱画纸,衬托纸mourning paper 讣告用纸mulch paper 育苗纸mulch base paper 育苗原纸multicolor printing paper 彩色印刷纸multigraph paper 油印纸multiplier paper 复写纸multi-ply paper 多层纸multi-wall bag kraft paper 多层牛皮袋纸munition paper 弹药包装纸music paper 乐谱纸music lithograph paper 乐谱石版印刷纸music printing paper 乐谱纸music roll paper 乐谱卷纸machine coated board 机上涂布纸板machine glazed board 有光纸板manila board 单面白纸板，马尼拉纸板manila lined box board 马尼拉挂面箱纸板；漂白挂面箱纸板manila lined chip board 马尼拉挂面粗纸板；漂白挂面粗纸板manila lined straw board 马尼拉挂面草纸板；漂白挂面草纸板marble board 大理石纹纸板mat board 无光泽纸板match box board 火柴盒用纸板matrix board 字型纸板mechanical pulp board 磨木浆制纸板metallic electrosensitive board 金属电敏纸板micro-currugated board 微瓦楞纸板mildew proof board 防霉纸板milk bottle board 奶瓶纸板mill board 书法纸板；厚纸板mill lined board 裱糊纸板；多层纸板model board 制鞋纸板molded board 模制纸板mottled board 花岗石纹纸板mould machine board 圆网纸机抄制纸板mounting board 衬托纸板muffling board 隔音纸板multi-layer (paper) board 多层纸板multi-ply board 多层纸板multi-stock (paper) board 混合纸板multi-wall corrugated board 多层瓦楞纸板munition board 弹药纸板massey coater 多辊涂布机metering bar coater 刮棒涂布机microjet coater 喷射式气刷涂布机macerate 浸渍macerated 浸渍的maceration 浸渍（作用）maceration extract 浸渍液machinability 机械加工性能machine barking 机械去皮，机械剥皮machine broke 纸机损纸machine calender 纸机压光机machine chest 纸机（贮）浆池machine clothing 造纸机贵重器材（指铜网、毛毯等）machine coated 机上涂布的machine coating 机上涂布machine creped 机上起皱machine crew 抄纸小组machine deckle 定边带machine design 机械设计machine direction 纵向machine dried 纸机干燥machine drying 纸机干燥machine finish(ed) 纸机压光的machine glazed 纸机光泽machine glazing 单面光machine gloss 纸机光泽machine hand 抄纸工machine imprinted 毛毯痕（纸病）machine loading 湿部加填machine oil 机油machine operation 造纸机操作machine pit （纸机）白水坑machine room 造纸车间，抄纸车间machine shop 机修车间machine shop worker 机修工machine sorting 机械选料；机械选纸machine tender 放料工；抄纸工长machine time 机械加工时间machine width 机宽machine water 网下白水machine wire 抄纸（用）网machinery 机器，机械（设备）machining 机械加工macromolecular compound 高分子化合物macromolecule 高分子macroscopic 宏观的macroscopic structure 宏观结构，宏观组织m amp; d digester 斜管式连续蒸煮器madder (rubia) 茜草属madeleine dryer 毛毯热风干燥器madeleine roll 热风干毯辊magazine 库；木库；杂志magazine grinder 库式磨木机magazine stock 废杂志浆料magenta （碱性）品红，洋红magna centricleaner 大型锥型除渣器magna pump 大型泵magnesia 氧化镁magnesia limestone 镁氧石灰magnesite 菱镁矿，菱镁土，菱苦土magnesium base 镁盐基magnesium base liquor 镁盐基蒸煮液magnesium recovery 镁盐基废液回收magnesium bisulfite 亚硫酸氢镁magnesium carbonate 碳酸镁magnesium chloride 氯化镁magnesium hydrate 氢氧化镁magnesium hydroxide 氢氧化镁magnesium oxide 氧化镁magnesium oxide slurry 氢氧化镁乳液magnesium silicate 硅酸镁magnesium sulfide 硫化镁magnesium sulfate 硫酸镁magnesium thiosulfate 硫代硫酸镁magnet 磁铁magnetic electron lens 磁电子透镜magnetic equipment 磁性设备magnetic field 磁场magnetic ink 磁性墨水magnetic properties 磁性magnetic roll 磁力辊magnetic separating roll 磁力分离辊magnetic separator 磁力分离器magnetic switch 电磁开关magnetic tape 磁带magnification 放大率，扩大magnify 扩大，放大magnitude 尺寸，大小；量（度）；数值magnolia (magnolia) 木兰属mahogany (swietenia mahogani l.) 桃花心木mahogany birch (betula lenta l.) 山桦maidenhair tree (ginkgo biloba l.) 银杏，白果main 总线；主管；主要的；总的main air 一次风，一级空气main chain 主键main group 主族main group element 主族元素main press 主压榨main reaction 主要反应main shaft 主轴main steam valve 总阀maintenance 维修maintenance cost 维修费用maintenance crew 保全组maintenance man 保全工maintenance shop 维修车间maize 玉米，玉蜀黍，包谷maize starch 玉蜀黍淀粉maize stalk 玉米秆maize straw 玉米秆make-up 补充make-up of chemical loss 化学药品补充量make-up liquor 补充药液make-up room 制药车间；装配室make-up water 补充水（量）malachite green （碱性）孔雀绿male screw 阴螺丝maleic acid 马来酸，顺丁烯二酸maleic anhydride 马来酸酐，顺丁烯二酸酐malfunction 故障malonamide 丙二酰胺malonate 丙二酸盐maltitol 麦芽糖酸maltose 麦芽糖manager 管理人，经理manchester mf former mf式压力上浆圆网成形器manchurian ash (fraxinus mandschurica rupr.) 水曲柳manchurian fir (abies holophylla maxim.) 杉松，辽东冷杉manchurian linden (tilia mandschurica rupr. et. maxim.) 糖椴manchurian walhut (juglans mandschurica maxim.) 胡桃揪mandrel 水印辊骨架manganese dioxide 二氧化锰mangrove 红树类manhole 人孔manidold (type) 多管；汇集manidold distributor 多管进浆装置manifold valve 汇流阀manila 马尼拉纸，黄色马尼拉麻纸manila bristol 马尼拉厚纸manila fiber 马尼拉纤维manila for oiling 防油马尼拉纸manila hemp (musa textilis) 马尼拉麻，焦麻manila tag 厚纸板manila wrapping 马尼拉包装纸manila writing 马尼拉书写纸manipulation 手动；（用手）操作mannan 聚甘露糖，多甘露糖mannitol 甘露糖醇mannogalactan 甘露糖半乳聚糖mannose 甘露糖manoneter （液体）压力计manostat 恒压器，稳压器jmanual control 手控，人工控制manually loading 人工装料manufacturer's joint 企业联合manuseript 文件；手稿manuseript binder （文件）封面用纸；文件夹manuseript cover （文件）封面用纸manuseript music 乐谱用纸纸业专业英语词汇翻译(M1) 相关内容:。
【8A版】APA格式参考文献示例
APA格式参考文献示例期刊文章1.一位作者写的文章Hu,L.G.[胡莲香].(20XX).走向大数据知识服务:大数据时代图书馆服务模式创新.农业图书情报学刊(2):173-177.Olsher,D.(20XX).Semantically-basedpriorsandnuancedknowledgecoreforBigData,Soc ialAI,andlanguageunderstanding.NeuralNetworks,58,131-147.2.两位作者写的文章Li,J.Z.,&Liu,G.M.[李建中,刘显敏].(20XX).大数据的一个重要方面:数据可用性.计算机研究与发展(6):1147-1162.Mendel,J.M.,&Korjani,M.M.(20XX).Onestablishingnonlinearcombinationsofvariable rmationSciences,280,98-110. 3.三位及以上的作者写的文章Weichselbraun,A.etal.(20XX).Enrichingsemanticknowledgebasesforopinionmininginb igdataapplications.Knowledge-BasedSystems,69,78-85.Zhang,P.etal.[张鹏等].(20XX).云计算环境下适于工作流的数据布局方法.计算机研究与发展(3):636-647.专著1.一位作者写的书籍Rossi,P.H.(1989).DownandoutinAmerica:Theoriginsofhomelessness.Chicago:Universi tyofChicagoPress.Wang,B.B.[王彬彬].(20XX).文坛三户：金庸·王朔·余秋雨——当代三大文学论争辨析.郑州:大象出版社.2.两位作者写的书籍Plant,R.,&Hoover,K.(20XX).ConservativecapitalisminBritainandtheUnitedStates:Acr iticalappraisal.London:Routledge.Yin,D.,&Shang,H.[隐地,尚海].(20XX).到绿光咖啡屋听巴赫读余秋雨.上海:上海世界图书出版公司.3.三位作者写的书籍Chen,W.Z.etal.[陈维政等].(20XX).人力资源管理.大连:大连理工大学出版社. Hall,S.etal.(1991).Culture,media,language:Workingpapersinculturalstudies,1972-79( CulturalstudiesBirmingham).London:Routledge.4.新版书Kail,R.(1990).Memorydevelopmentinchildren(3rded.).NewYork:Freeman.编著1.一位主编编撰的书籍Loshin,D.(Ed.).(20XXa).Bigdataanalytics.Boston:MorganKaufmann.Zhong,L.F.[钟兰凤](编).(20XX).英文科技学术话语研究.镇江:江苏大学出版社. 2.两位主编编撰的书籍Hyland,K.,&Diani,G.(Eds.).(20XX).Academicevaluation:Reviewgenresinuniversityset tings.London:PalgraveMacmillan.Zhang,D.L.,&Zhang,G.[张德禄,张国](编).(20XX).英语文体学教程.北京:高等教育出版社.3.三位及以上主编编撰的书籍Zhang,K.D.etal.[张克定等](编).(20XX).系统评价功能.北京:高等教育出版社. Campbell,C.M.etal.(Eds.).(20XX).GroupsStAndrews20XXinOGford:Volume2.NewYor k:CambridgeUniversityPress.4.书中的文章DelaRosaAlgarín,A.,&Demurjian,S.A.(20XX).Anapproachtofacilitatesecurityassuran ceforinformationsharingandeGchangeinbig-dataapplications.InB.Akhgar&H.R.A rabnia(Eds.),EmergingtrendsinICTsecurity(pp.65-83).Boston:MorganKaufmann. He,J.M.,&Yu,J.P.[何建敏,于建平].(20XX).学术论文引言部分的经验功能分析.张克定等.(编).系统功能评价(pp.93-101).北京:高等教育出版社.翻译的书籍Bakhtin,M.M.(1981).Thedialogicimagination:Fouressays(C.Emerson&M.Holquist,Tr ans.).Austin:UniversityofTeGasPress.Le,D.L.[勒代雷].(20XX).释意学派口笔译理论(刘和平译).北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.Kontra,M.etal.(20XX).语言:权利和资源(李君,满文静译).北京:外语教学与研究出版社.Wang,R.D.,&Yu,Q.Y.[王仁定,余秋雨].(20XX).吴越之间——余秋雨眼里的中国文化（彩图本）(梁实秋,董乐天译).上海:上海文化出版社.硕博士论文Huan,C.P.(2015).JournalisticstanceinChineseandAustralianhardnews.Unpublisheddo ctorialdissertation,MacquarieUniversity,Sydney.Wang,G.Z.[王璇子].(20XX).功能对等视角下的英语长句翻译.南京大学硕士学位论文.注：1.APA格式参考文献中的文章标题、书籍名称，冒号后第一个单词，括号里第一个单词和专有名词的首字母大写，其余单词首字母均小写。
办公工具bain战略分析工具profitpool
10.01.2024
Darral G Clarke for BM 499
7
Turbulent industries
Profit pools are especially important and useful in industries undergoing deregulation and/or technological change
Essentially an accounting process no theory Most valuable in situations in which external conditions
are essential stable and/or unimportant Often dominated by internal data alone
The goal should be to focus on profitable opportunities
Industry should be considered more broadly than traditional definition
Automobile industry includes
10.01.2024
Darral G Clarke for BM 499
10
Marakon Runners
10.01.2024
Thomas A Stewart Fortune
Sept 28; 1998
Darral G Clarke for BM 499
11
Marakon Associates’s Approach to Corporate Strategy
10
5
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纸业专业英语词汇翻译
纸业专业英语词汇翻译abrasive paper 砂纸abrasive base paper 砂纸原纸absorbing paper 吸水纸；吸收性纸account book paper 帐簿纸accounting machine paper 计算机用纸acid-free paper 无酸纸acid-proof paper 耐酸纸acid resistant paper 耐酸纸acoustic paper 隔音纸actinometer paper 溴化银印相纸active paper 吸湿纸adding machine paper 计算机用纸address label paper 地址标签纸adhesive paper 胶粘纸advertising paper 广告纸，招贴纸agate paper 仿大理石纸agate marble paper 仿玛瑙大理五石纹纸age resistant paper 耐老化纸air paper 航空信纸air-dried paper 风干纸air-filtration paper 空气滤纸air-knife coated paper 气刀涂布纸air-mail paper 航空信纸air-proof paper 不透气纸air-tight paper 气密纸alabaster paper 名片纸alabaster paper 薄纸albumenized paper 蛋白胶纸，蛋白纸albumin paper 蛋白胶纸aligning paper 地图纸alkali-proof paper 耐碱纸all rag paper 全棉纤维纸all-wood paper 全木浆纸allogator imitation paper 仿鳄皮纸alpha printing paper 西班牙草浆印刷纸alpha-writing paper 西班牙草浆书写纸aluminum paper 铝纸aluminum-castling paper 铝衬纸aluminum-coated paper 铝涂布纸aluminum-dusted paper 铝粉纸aluminum-foil backing paper 铝箔衬纸aluminum diaphragm paper 石棉隔膜纸aluminum (electrical)insulating paper 石棉(电)绝缘纸aluminum wall paper 石棉壁纸aseptic paper 消毒纸,防腐纸ash less paper 无灰纸ash filter paper 无灰滤纸aluminum laminated paper 铝箔夹层纸amber laid paper 琥柏条纹纸ammunition paper 弹药筒纸amplitude response recording paper 频率感应记录纸analytical filter paper 分析化学用滤纸angle paper 斜面纸angle-cut yarer 斜截面纸angular paper 斜角纸animal tub-sized paper 动物胶表面施胶纸anti-acid paper 耐酸纸，抗酸纸anti-acid manila paper 耐酸马尼拉纸anti-corrosion paper 防蚀纸anti-falsification paper 仿伪造纸anti-fungicide paper 防霉纸anti-fusion paper 服装剪裁用纸anti-tarnish paper 防锈纸anti-rust base paper 防锈原纸anti-tarnish paper 防锈纸antique paper 低光泽纸，仿古纸antique book paper 仿古书籍纸antique-bristol paper 仿古整饰光泽厚纸antique-cover paper 仿古整饰封面纸antique-eggshell paper 粗糙表面仿白纸粗糙表面仿白纸antique-glazed paper 低光泽纸antique-printing paper 仿古印刷纸,低光泽印刷纸anti-rust paper 防锈纸antiseptic paper 杀菌纸antitarnish paper 保光泽纸apricot paper 粉红色水果包装纸aquare(le) paper 水彩图画纸，水彩画纸archival paper 档案纸armature paper 绝缘纸aromatic paper 香料纸arsenical paper 含砷纸art paper 美术纸，铜版纸，涂料纸art-cover paper 美术装饰纸art-drawing paper 水彩例纸art-poster paper 美术广告纸；美工宣传纸articulating paper 牙科用纸artificial leather paper 人造革纸artificial parchment paper 仿羊皮纸asbestos paper 石棉纸asbestos base paper 钡地原纸，照相原纸asphalt paper 防潮纸,沥青纸，柏油纸asphalt base paper 沥青原纸asphalt coated paper 沥青涂布纸asphalt laminated paper 沥青层合纸asphalt saturated paper 防潮纸,沥青纸asphalt moisture proof paper 防潮纸,沥青纸asphalt sheathing paper 涂布防潮纸,沥青涂布纸asphalting paper 防潮纸，沥青纸asthma paper 防喘纸atlas paper 地图纸，绘图纸，印图纸autochion printing paper 彩色印刷纸auto copy paper 压感复写纸autograph paper 纪念册纸autographic register paper 自动(划线)记录纸autographic transfer paper 复印纸automobile-bag paper 汽车袋用纸automobile tire roll paper 轮胎包装纸autotype paper 复制纸，影印纸avenue paper 食品包装纸azure laid(writing) paper 蓝条纹书写纸A printing A级印刷纸（含漂白磨木浆）absolute humidity 绝对湿度absolute temperature 绝对温度absorbency of paper 纸张吸收性能absorbent 吸收性的，吸收剂absorbent paper 吸水纸，易吸墨的印刷纸addition agent 添加剂additional agent 添加剂autotype pigment paper 碳素纸autogtaphic printing paper 转写纸autographic stencil paper 誊写版蜡纸articulating paper 双面复写纸artificial parchment 仿硫酸纸artist's illustration board 绘图用厚纸ash content 灰分纸张Ashcroft tester 纸张耐破裂度测试仪ashless filter paper 无灰滤纸art board 涂料板纸art vellum 仿羊皮纸antitarnish paper 防锈纸antiquarian 纸张尺寸antifalsification paper 防伪造纸animal parchment 羊皮纸anopisthographic block book 单面印刷的木版纸A flute A级瓦楞纸波形数abaca(Musa texilis) 马尼拉麻，蕉麻abele(Populus alba) 银白杨abienol 松香醇abies 冷杉属abietate 松香酸酯abieteae(Abietoideae) 冷杉（亚科），松亚科abietene 松香烯abietic acid 松香酸abrader 研磨机abrading machine 研磨机abrasion 磨损，磨蚀abrasion resistance 抗磨性能abrasion test 耐磨试验abrasion t3ester 耐磨试验机abrasive 磨损的，磨蚀的abrasive acrion 磨蚀作用abrasive fiber 砂纸原纸用纤维abrasive grain 磨（料）粒（度）abrasive machine 研磨机abrasive resistance 抗磨性能abrasive tester 耐磨试验机abrasiveness 磨蚀absolute alcohol 无水酒精absolute alcohol dry 绝干absolute alcohol humidity 绝对湿度absolute alcohol temperature 绝对温度absolute unit 绝对单位absorb 吸收absorbability 吸收性能absorbed water 吸收水absorbency 吸收能力；吸收本领absorbent 吸收剂absorbent felt 吸水毛毯absorber 吸收器，吸收剂，减震器absorbing capacity 吸收能力absorbing capacity column 吸收塔absorbing capacity pad 防震垫absorbing capacity power 吸收能力absorbing capacity quality 吸收性能；吸收能力absorbing capacity tower 吸收塔absorption 吸收作用absorption ability 吸收能力absorption band 吸收光带absorption coefficient 吸收系数absorption measurement 吸收测定absorption rate 吸收率absorption spwctrum 吸收光谱absorption tester 吸收试验仪absorption tower 吸收塔absorptive capacity 吸收能力absorptivity 吸收能力，吸收率acacia (Acacia) 金合欢（属）acacia false (Robinia psendon cacia L.) 刺槐；洋槐acacia gum 金合欢胶accelerant 催速剂，促进剂，加速剂accelerated ageing 加速老化accelerated cement 速凝水泥accelerated oxidation 加速氧化accelerated weathering 人工加速风干accelerating agent 催速剂，促进剂accelerator 加速器，促进剂acceptability 合格率acceptable fiber 合格纤维accepted chips 合格木片accepted chips product 合格产品accepted chips stock 合格浆料acceptance sampling system 合格率抽样系统acceptance sampling system test 合格率检查accepts 合格品；良浆access time 存取时间，选取时间，信息发送时间accessibility 可及度accessory 附件；零件a.c. commutator motor 整流式交流电动机accident prevention 技术保安措施accidental error 偶（然误）差accordion fold 手风琴式折纸法accumulation 累积，蓄积，储积，堆积accumulator 储存槽，回收槽；蓄电池；污热水槽accumulator acid （亚硫酸盐制浆）回收酸accumulator relief 储存槽排气，回收槽排气accumulator tank 储存槽，回收槽，污热水槽accuracy 准确（度，性）；精密（度，性）acer 枫树，槭树<BR>acetal 乙缩醛，乙醛缩二乙醇acetaldehyde 乙醛acetate 醋酸盐；醋酸酯；醋酸根（或基）acetate fiber 醋酸纤维acetate film 醋酸盐胶片acetate rayon 醋酸人造丝acetic acid 醋酸acetic acid anhydride 醋（酸水）解acetone 丙酮acetonitrile 乙腈aceto-veratrone 乙酰藜芦酮acetyl 乙酰（基）acetyl cellulose 醋酸纤维素acetyl vanilloyl 乙酰基香草酰acetylate 乙酰化，乙酰化产物acetylation 乙酰化（作用）achromatic 消色的，消色差的acid accumulator （酸液）回收锅（或槽）acid accumulator alizarin dye 茜素染料，1，2-二羟基蒽醌染料acid accumulator alum 酸性明矾acid accumulator bath 酸溶；脱酸槽acid accumulator bleaching 酸性漂白acid accumulator chloride 酸性氯化物acid accumulator circulation 酸液循环acid accumulator composition 酸液组成acid accumulator dye（stuff) 酸性染料acid accumulator extract 酸抽提acid accumulator fastness 耐酸度acid accumulator filter 滤酸器acid accumulator fortitying system 酸液强化系统acid accumulator free 无酸的，脱酸的，不含酸的acid accumulator group 酸根（或基）acid accumulator halide 酸性卤化物acid accumulator insoluble lignin 酸不溶木素acid accumulator lignin 酸木素acid accumulator line 酸液管道acid accumulator liquor 酸液acid accumulator maker 制酸工acid accumulator making 制酸acid accumulator number 酸值acid accumulator penetration 酸液渗透，酸液浸透acid accumulator plant 制酸车间acid accumulator preheater 酸液预热器acid accumulator press （羊皮纸机用）压酸辊acid accumulator proof enamel 防酸搪瓷acid accumulator prmp 酸泵acid accumulator recovery plant 酸液回收车间acid accumulator reduction 酸性还原acid accumulator resistance 耐酸性能，耐酸强度acid accumulator resistant 耐酸合金acid accumulator tesistant brick 耐酸砖acid accumulator tesisting bronze 耐酸铜acid accumulator resisting felt 耐酸毛毯acid accumulator resisting mortar 耐酸灰泥acid accumulator resisting paint 耐酸油漆acid accumulator resisting steel 耐酸铜acid accumulator resisting tile 耐酸砖acid accumulator rosin size 酸性松香胶acid accumulator settling basin 酸液澄清槽acid accumulator salt 酸式盐acid accumulator size 酸性施胶剂acid accumulator soluble 酸溶（性）acid accumulator soluble lignin 酸溶性木素acid accumulator souring 酸处理acid accumulator stable size 酸稳性施胶剂acid accumulator storage 贮酸槽acid accumulator strength 酸液浓度acid accumulator sulfite 酸性亚硫酸盐acid accumulator tank 酸槽acid accumulator tower 制酸塔，酸塔acid accumulator trap 分酸器acid accumulator treatment 酸处理acid accumulator treatment tower 酸处理塔acid accumulator tub 酸槽acid accumulator wash 酸洗acid accumulator water 酸水acidic 酸的，酸性的acidification 酸化（作用）acidifier 酸化器；酸化剂acidified water 酸化水acidify 酸化acidity 酸度acidity control 酸度控制acidolysis 酸解acidometer 酸度计，PH计，酸（液）比重计acidproof 耐酸的acidproof brick 耐酸砖acidproof cement 耐酸水泥acidproof lining 耐酸衬里acifulate 酸化acoustic insulation 隔音acoustic insulation properties 声学性质Aeroart 高密度聚乙烯合成纸（美国Aeroline产品，商业名称）across grain 横纹理acrylamide 丙烯酰胺acrylate 丙烯酸盐acrylic acid 丙烯酸acrylic acid bound coating 丙烯酸盐涂布acrylic acid compound 丙烯酯化合物acrylic acid emulsion 丙烯乳液acrylic acid fiber 丙烯纤维acrylonitrile 丙烯腈acrylonitrile butadiene rubber latex 丙烯腈，丁二烯其聚体乳胶activared carbon 活性碳activared carbon clay 活性白上activared carbon silica 活性硅activared carbon sludge 活性污泥activared carbon sulfur 活性硫酸activation 活性（作用）active alkali 活性碱active alkali alkali to wood ration 碱比，活性碱对木材量的比率active alkali carbon 活性碳active alkali chemical to wood ratio 碱比，用碱量active alkali chlorine 有效氯active alkali lime 有效石灰active alkali sulfur 有效硫酸active alkali surface 活性表面activity 活性度actual volume 有效容积，实际容积actual volume weight 实际重量，有效重量actuating signal 驱动信号，作用信号actuation time 动作时间actuator 驱动器；执行机构；激励器acylate 酰化；酰化产物acylation 酰化（作用）adapter 接合器；连接器；接头addition compound 加成化合物addition compound polymer 加成聚合物addition compound product 加成产物addition compound reaction 加成反应additional acid tank 辅助贮酸槽，辅助酸液槽additional dryer 附加烘缸additive 添加剂additive reaction 加成反应adherence 粘附adherent 粘附的adhesion 粘附（现象）；粘附力adhesion of wet web 湿纸胎粘附现象adhesion strength 粘附强度adhesion tester 粘附力测定仪adhesive 粘附剂，粘合剂，胶粘剂，粘着剂；胶粘的adhesive capacity 粘附能力；胶粘度adhesive dissolving tank 溶胶桶adhesive felt 衬底用纸板adhesive force 胶粘力，粘着力，粘附力adhesive glassine tank 粘胶槽adhesive (glassine）tape 胶（带）纸adhesive migration 胶粘剂的迁移adiabatic condition 绝热状态，绝热情况adiabatic condition eficiency 绝热效率adiabatic cindition expansion 绝热膨胀adiabatic cindition throtling 绝热调节adipo-cellulose 含脂纤维素adjective color 间接染料adjust 调节，调整；修正adjustable bow curved roll （可调节）弧形辊，（可调）弓形辊adjustable bow curved roll orifice 可调锐板adjustable bow curved roll speed motor 调速电动机adjusting color 调色adjusting color device 调节装置adjusting color screw 调节螺旋adjusting color controls 调节控制器admission valve 进气阀；进浆阀admixture 掺和剂；掺和，混合adsorb 吸附adsorbability 吸附性（能）adsorbate （被）吸附物；吸附质adsorbed water 吸附水adsorbent 吸附剂，吸附的adsorption 吸附（作用）adsorptive capncity 吸附能力adsorptivity 吸附性（能）adulf wood 成年材advanced water treatment AWT 污水处理法，（污水）三级处理<BR>aerate 曝气，充气aerated lagoon 曝气塘aeration 曝气，充气aeration basin 曝气塘aeration tank 充气槽，充气罐aerator 曝气机aerobic 需氧的aerobic bacteria 好氧细菌，需氧细菌aerobic treatment 充氧处理aerogel 气凝胶aeromix wet scrubber 文丘里型洗涤塔affinity 亲力，亲合势；亲合能，亲合性afforestation 造体after dryer 后部烘缸组after dryer sizing 后施胶，表面施胶afrer dryer treatment 后处理agalite 滑石agar 琼脂agave 龙舌兰aged wood 老化材ag(e)ing 老化agglomerate 附聚（作用）；烧结（作用）agglutinant 烧结剂；凝集剂agglomeration 聚集体agitating valve 搅拌浆agitation 搅拌（作用）agitator 搅拌器aging quality 耐久性；老化性能aging quality resistance 抗老化性能aging quality test 老化试验Ahlfors screen Ahlfors 木片筛aid 促进剂，辅助剂air bells （水印辊构成的）气泡（纸病）air bells blade 气刀air bells blast duster 风选机aidr bells blast system 鼓风系统；风选系统air bells bleed press 抽气压榨，吸风压榨air bells blower 鼓风机air bells blowing roll 热风辊air bells borne drying 气垫干燥，气托干燥air bells brake 空气制动器，风闸air bells brush 气刷air bells bubble （空）气泡air bells cap(drying) 热风罩（干燥）air bells chamber 通风室air bells channel 通风道air bells chip distributor 风送木片分布器air bells compressor 压缩空气机，空压机air bells condenser 空气冷凝器air bells conditioner 空气调节装置，空调设施air bells conditioning equipment 空气调节装置，空调设施air bells content 空气含量air bells controlled 气控air bells centrolled dilution valve 气控稀释阀air bells cooled 空气冷却air bells cooling 空气冷却air bells curtain 气帘，气幕air bells cushion 气挚air bells damper 风挡air bells deekle 气控定边器air bells doctor 气刀，空气刮刀air bells drainer 空气助滤压榨air bells dried 风干air bells dried wood 风干材air bells dry 风干air bells dry basis 风干基础air bells dry weight 风干重量air bells dryer 空气干燥器，热风干燥器air bells drying 风干的；热风干燥air bells drying machine 用热风干燥的造纸机air bells ejector 空气喷射器air bells entrainment 空气含量air bells escape valve 排气阀，放空阀air bells exhauster 排风机air bells filter 空气过滤器air bells float dryer 气垫干燥装置，气托干燥装置air bells float(drying) 气垫（干燥），气托（干燥）air bells float table 气托堆纸台air bells flow 气流air bells foil 热风气翼air bells foil dryer 气翼箱式热风干燥装置air bells heater 空气加热器air bells intake 进风口，空气入口air bells jet 空气喷嘴air bells knife 气刀air bells knife coating 气刀涂布air bells knife mark 气刀痕（纸病）air bells laid 空气沉降air bells -lay drying 热风干燥air bells line 空气管道air bells loaded headbox 气垫网前箱，气垫式压力流浆箱air bells loaded tension device 气动张力装置air bells nozzle 喷气嘴air bells operated automatic control 气动调湿控制器air bells operated thermostat 气动恒温器air bells outlet flue 排气管air bells permeability 透气性，透气度air bells permeability tester 透气度测定仪air bells piping 风管air bells pollution 大气污染air bells preheater 空气预热器air bells proof 不透气的；密封的air bells press 空气压力air bells quality 空气质量air bells regulator 空气调节器air bells removing roll 排气辊，（伏辊上方）小压辊air bells reservoir 贮气箱；气库air bells resisTANCE 空气阻力air bells roll 压纸辊air bells scrubber 空气洗涤器，净气器air bells seal 气封air bells separator 吹（气分）离器air bells space 空域，大气层；空隙air bells spring 气垫air bells stripping 空气脱吸，空气抽提air bells sword （卸纸垛装置的）气刀air bells tight 不透气的air bells trap 空气阱air bells valve （空）气阀air bells velocity pressure 气流速度压力air bells vent 排气口air bells wash 浮气器Ａladdin former （纸板机用）Ａladdin夹网成形器（日本三菱制作所）albumen 蛋白（胶）albumin 白蛋白albuminous substances 白蛋白物质alburnum 边材alcohol 乙醇，酒精alcohol acid 醇酸alcohol benzene extractive 笨醇抽提物alcohol extractive 乙醇抽提物alcohol lignin 乙醇木素alcoholic extract 乙醇抽提物alcoholic extract fermentation 乙醇发酵alcoholic extract hydroxyl group 醇羟基alcoholysis 醇解alcoholytic splitting 醇分裂aldehyde 醛aldehyde resin 聚醛树腊alder(Alnus) 桤木（属）aldo－醛aldonic acid 糖醛酸，醛糖首酸aldose 醛糖alfa (Stipa tenacissima) 非洲蒲草alga(e) 藻类algicide 灭藻剂alginate 藻朊酸盐；藻朊酸纤维alginic acid 藻朊酸algorithm 算法alignment 顺序；划线；对准；调直aliphatic 脂（肪）族的aliphatic acid 脂族酸aliphatic compound 脂族化合物alizarine dyestuff 茜素染料alkali 碱alkali cellulose 碱纤维素alkali charge 用碱量alkali consumption 碱耗，耗碱量alkali extract 碱抽提物alkali extraction 碱抽提alkali extractive (substance) 碱抽提物alkali fastness 抗碱牢度，抗碱性alkali filler 碱性填料alkali free 无碱的，不含碱的alkali fusion 碱熔alkali hydrolysis 碱性水解alkali lignin 碱木素alkali loquor 碱液alkali proof 抗碱的alkali ratio 碱比alkali reeovery 碱回收alkali reslstance 抗碱性（能）alkali resisting 抗碱的alkali resisting cellulose 抗碱纤维素alkali sensitive 对碱活泼的alkali solubility 碱溶性alkali soluble 碱溶性的alkali stable 对碱稳定的alkali staining resistance 抗碱染性（能）alkali treatment 碱处理alkaline bleach liquor 碱性漂液alkaline bleach liquor cleavage 碱性分裂，碱性裂解alkaline bleach liquor degradation 碱性降解alkaline bleach liquor extraction 碱抽提alkaline bleach liquor extraction tower 碱抽提塔alkaline bleach liquor filler 碱性填料alkaline bleach liquor purification 碱处理；碱净化alkaline bleach liquor reducing agent 碱性还原剂alkaline bleach liquor sizing 碱性施胶alkaline bleach liquor solubility 碱溶性alkaline bleach liquor soluble 可溶于碱的alkaline bleach liquor solutioln 碱性溶液alkaline bleach liquor steeping test （溶解浆）碱浸试验alkaline bleach liquor treatment 碱处理alkaline bleach liquor wash 碱洗（涤）alkalinity 碱度，碱性alkaloid 生物碱alkyl 烷基alkyl hydrosulfide 烷基硫醇alkyl ketene 烷基烯酮alkyl ketene dimer 烷基烯酮二聚体alkyl sulfhydrate 烷基硫醇，烷基硫氢alkyl sulfide 硫醚，烷基硫alkylaryl sulfonate 烷基芳基磺酸盐alkylation 烷（基）化all purpose computer 通用电子计算机allowable current 容许电流allowable current deviation 容许误差allowable current error 容许误差allowable current load 容许负荷alloy 合金alloy steel 合金钢alpha cellulose a 纤维素alpha cellulose a gage a 射线仪alpha cellulose a protein a 蛋白质alpha cellulose a pinene a 蒎烯alum 明矾alum cake （明）矾块alum earth 铝矾土alum liquor 明矾液，矾土液alum speck （明）矾斑（点）纸病alum spot （明）矾斑（点）纸病alumina 氧化铝alumina baryta white 铝钡门alumina oxide 氧化铝aluminate 铝酸盐alumine 钡土，氧化铝aluminum foil 铝箱aluminum foil resinate 树脂酸铝aluminum foil stearate 硬酯酸铝aluminum foil sulfate 硫酸铝alumite 耐酸铝alunite 明矾石ambient conditions 环境条件，外界条件ambient comditions temperature 环境温度American arbor-vitae (Thujaoccidentalis L.) 香柏，美国侧柏，金钟柏American arbor-vitae (Thujaoccidentalis L.) aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) 颤杨，美国白杨amide 酰胺amine 胺amino acid 氨基酸amino acid ethyl cellulose 氨基乙基纤维素amion acid group 氨基amion acid polumer 氨基聚合物amion acid propyl cellulose 氨基丙基纤维素amion acid sugar 氨基糖ammeter 安培计，电流表ammonia 氮ammoniabase liquor 铵基蒸煮液ammonia liquor （粗）氨水ammonia test 氨试验ammonia water 氨水ammoniacal copper solution 铜氨（溶）液ammonium base 铵基ammonium base base liquor 铵基蒸煮液ammonium base bisulfate 硫酸氢铵ammonium base bisulfite 亚硫酸铵ammonium base compounds 铵基化合物ammonium base salts 铵盐ammonium base stearate 硬脂酸铵ammonium base sulfate 硫酸铵ammonium base sulfite 亚硫酸铵amorphous 无定形的amorphous cellulose 无定形纤维素，非结品纤维素amorphous region 无定形区，非结品区amorphous resin 无定形松香amphiphatic 偶极性amphoteric 两性的amphoteric reaction 两性反应amphoteric surface reactive agent 两性表面活性剂amplifier 放大器amplitude(of shake) 振幅amur corktree (Phellodendron amurense Rup.) 黄檗amylaceous 淀粉的amyulase 淀粉酶amylopectin 支链淀粉amylose 支链淀粉anaerobic 厌氧的anaerobic treatment 厌氧处理analog 类似，模似analog computer 模拟计算机analog speed/draw system 车速和牵引力模拟控制系统analog sensor 模拟传感器analog signal 模拟信号analogy 模拟，类似analysis of variance 方差分析analytical balance 分析天平anatase 锐钛矿anchot bolt 地脚螺丝Anderson moisture expeller Anderson 螺旋挤水机Anderson moisture expeller Anderson barker Andersson 刀式剥皮机anenometer 风速机angiosper 被子植物angiospermous wood 被子树木angle cutting machine 斜切机angle cutting machine steel 角钢angle cutting machine valve 角阀anhydride （酸）酐anhydroglucose 葡萄糖酐anhydrous 无水的anhydrous alcohol 无水酒精anhydro-xylan unit 无水多缩木糖aniline 苯胺aniline color 苯胺染料aniline dye 苯胺染料aniline printing 苯胺染色animal glue 动物胶animal glue size 动物胶anion 阴离子anion exchange 阴离子交换anion exchange resin 阴离了交换树脂anion exchanger 阴离子交换剂anionic 阴离子的anionic compound 阴离子化合物anionic starch 阴离子淀粉annealing temperature 退火温度annual growth 一年生annual growth layer 年轮（层）annual growth plant 一年生植物annual growth ring 年轮annual growth zone 年轮区annular 环形的；轮壮的；有环纹的annular vessel 环纹导管annuli 环壮体anode 阳极anode protection 阳极保护anode ray 阳极射线anthraquinone 蒽醌anti-acid 耐酸的anti-acidblocking agent 防粘附剂；防阻塞剂antichlor 脱氯剂anticorrosion 耐腐蚀anticorrosion paint 耐蚀漆anti-crawl agent 防滑动剂anti-crawl agentdefiection 抗挠anti-crawl agentdeflection press roll 中固（抗挠）压榨辊anti-crawl agentdefiection roll 抗挠辊anti-crawl agentdetonator 抗爆剂anti-crawl agentflocculant 防絮凝剂anti-crawl agentflocculation 防絮凝作用anti-crawl agentfoam 消泡anti-crawl agentfoam oil 消泡油anti-crawl agentfoaming agent 消泡剂anti-crawl agentfoggant 防翳的；防翳剂anti-crawl agentfogging compound 防腐剂；防污剂anti-crawl agentfriction bearing 抗磨轴承anti-crawl agentfroth oil 消沫油anti-crawl agentknock agent 抗爆剂anti-crawl agentoxidant 抗氧剂；防老化剂anti-crawl agentpollution sequence（漂白车间）污染防治流程antique bristol 仿光泽纸antique bristol finish 仿古整饰antique bristol laid bond 仿证券纸antique bristol woven 仿光泽布纹纸anti-rust 防锈anti-rustrusting paint 防锈漆anti-rustskid 防滑动anti-rustskid coating 防滑涂布anti-rustskid treatment 防滑动处理antiseptic 防腐antiseptic agent 防腐剂antiseptics 防腐剂anti-static agent 抗静电剂anti-static agenttarnish agent 防锈剂aperture 孔；筛孔；网孔apex 顶端apical zone 顶生区Apmew(centrifugal)screen （阿牟）离心式圆筛，A型圆筛apparatus 仪器；装置apparent density 表观密度apparent density specific gravity 表观比重apparent density specific volume 表观体积apparent density viscosity 表观粘度apparent density weight 表观重量appearance 外观appendage 附属部分；附件appendix 附录application valve 控制阀applicator 上涂装置；施胶装置applicator roll 涂料辊；施胶辊applying felt 专用毛毯approach flow(of stock) 浆料上网approach flow(of stock) folw system （纸机上）流浆系统aoproach flow(of stock) (onto wire) 放料上网apron board 下唇板，裙板apron board (cloth) 唇布，裙布apron board conveyor 带式干燥机aquapel(size）聚烷基烯酮胶料（商业名称）；乙烯酮二聚物胶料aquapulper 水力碎浆机aqueous 含水的，液态的；水成的aqueous emulsion 水乳液aqueous lignin 水木素aqueous phase 液相aqueous solution 水溶液araban 聚阿拉伯糖，多阿拉伯糖arabic gum 阿拉伯胶arabinose 阿拉伯糖，阿戊糖Arathene 高密度聚乙稀合成纸（商业名称，比利时UCB产品）arbor-vitae(Thuja occidentalissL.) 香柏，美国侧柏，金钟柏are foil 弧形案板，弧形脱水板arch dryer 拱状热风干燥室，拱式烘房arching 搭桥Arcu formq Arcu 夹网成形装置area of bars 打浆面积areal(dried)wejight 定量argilla 泥土，铝氧土arithmetic and logic unit 算数与逻辑装置arithmetic mean 算术平均arithmetic mean mean temperature 算术平均平均温度arithmetic mean unit 运算器armature winding 电枢绕线aromatic 芳香族的，芳烃的aromatic acid 芳酸aromatic alcohol 芳醇aromatic compound 芳香族化合物aromatic group 芳烃基arrester 制动片，制动机构arresting device 制动机构Arrhenius equation Arrhenius 方程式，阿雷尼厄斯方程式arrow root starch 木薯淀粉art cover 装饰面板art cover (regetable)parchment 美术（植物）羊皮纸artificial aging 人工老化artificial aging cotton 人造棉artificial aging dyestuff 合成染料artificial aging fiber 人造纤维artificial aging grindstone 人造磨石artificial aging leather 人造革artificial aging parchment 仿羊皮纸artificial aging pulpstone 人造磨石artificial aging regeneration 人工再生artificial aging resin 合成树脂artificial aging silk 人造成丝artificial aging stone 人造磨石artificial aging stone roll 人造石辊asbestine 滑石棉asbestos 石棉asbestos felt 石棉毛毯asbestos fiber 石棉纤维asbestos packing 石棉垫asbestos roll 石棉辊asbestos roofing felt 屋顶石棉毡asbestos rope 石棉绳asbestos sheet 石棉板asbestos wall 石棉壁板（纸）asbestos washer 石棉垫圈asbestos waterproof(ing)felt 防水石棉毡ascending chromatography 上行色谱（分离）法ash(Fraxinus) 灰分；炉灰ash content 灰分含量ash content dissolving tank 黑灰溶解槽ash content free 无灰的ash content hopper （锅炉）灰斗ash content tester 灰分试验器Ashcroft tester Ashcroft 耐破度试验仪Ashcroft tester Ashcroft thickness gage Ashcroft 厚度计ashless 含灰分较少的；无灰的aspect ratio 纵横比（值）aspen(Populus) 杨属aspen(Populus tremula L.) 欧洲山杨asphalt 沥青asphalt coating 沥青涂布asphalt emulsion 沥青乳胶asphalt felt 沥青油毛毡asphalt laminator 沥青层压机asphalt roofing 油毡线asphalt saturated felt 沥青纸，油毡纸asphalt size 沥青胶料asphaltum 沥青aspirated pit (pair) 闭塞纹孔（对）aspitation 抽气aspirator 抽气机Asplund defibrator Asplund 单动纤维分离机Asplund defibrator Asplund digester Asplund 卧式连续蒸煮器assay 鉴定；分析assay procedure 分析程序assembly 机组；成套设备；联动装置；基团，组assimulation 同化（作用）assistant superintendent 车间副主任Astrom barker Astrom 链式剥皮机Astrom barker Astrom barking machine Astrom 链式剥皮机asynchronous motor 异步电机asymmetry 不对称（现象）at maximum temperature 保温atmospheric conditions 大气状态atmospheric conditions humidity 大气湿度atmospheric conditions pressure 大气压力atomic bond 原子键atomization 雾化atomized suspension technique ＡＳＴ法，（亚硫酸盐废液）雾化回收法atomizer 喷雾器；雾化器attachment 附件attapulgate 无水硅酸铝矿石attenuant 稀释剂；衰减器attenuation 衰减作用attrition mill 磨碎机；磨浆机auger method (for sampling pulp) （纸浆取样）钴取法Austrian pine(Pinus nigra Ahr.) 南欧黑松autoclave 高压釜，高压锅auto cut-out 自动断路（器）automatic control 自动控制automatic control electric feed 电控自动装料automatic control feed 自动进料，自动喂料automatic control felt guide 毛毯自动校正器automatic control felt stretcher 毛毯自动张紧器automatic control flashing apparatus 自动闪蒸设备automatic control fraction collector 自动分选机automatic control guide(roll) 自动导辊automatic control knife grinde 自动磨刀机automatic control line 自动线automatic control logging 自动记录automatic control operation 自动操作automatic control pick-up 自动递纸装置，自动引纸装置automatic control plant 自动化工厂；自动化车间automatic control pressure controller 压力自动控制器automatic control pressure vent 自动排气阀automatic control production 自动化生产automatic control proportioning and metering device 自动配浆箱automatic control regulating box 自动调节箱automatic control tegulating device 自动调节装置automatic control regulator 自动调节器automatic control set-up box machine 自动制盒机automatic control sheet counting device 自动数纸装置automatic control sheetfeeder 自动续纸器automatic control sheet handling machine 自动码纸机automatic control sorter 自动选纸机automatic control stoker 自动加煤器automatic control stuff box 自动调节箱automatic control temperature controller 温度自动控制器automatic control tip time service 自动定时转换automatic control valve 自动阀automatic control wire guide (roll) 自动校网器，自动校网辊automatically feed 自动进料的，自动喂料的automation 自动化automobile storage bag 汽车轮胎包装用纸袋auto-oxidation 自动氧化auto-panel 自动控制批示板autc-slice 真空刮刀auto tire wrap 汽车轮胎包装用纸autumn wood 晚材，秋材auxiljaries 辅助装置auxiliary air 补给空气，二次风auxiliary air caustization 辅助苛化auxiliary air causticizer 辅助苛化器auxiliary air equipment 辅助装置auxiliary air screen 辅助筛auxiliary air separator 辅助分离器auxiliary air sizing agent 辅助施胶剂auxiliary air strainer 辅助滤带；辅助筛浆机available alkali 有效碱available alkali capacity 有效容量available alkali chlorine 有效氯available alkali crosssection 有效截面average fiber length 纤维平均长度average fiber lengthincrement 平均增量average fiber length moisture(of pulp bales) 成捆浆板平均水分含量average fiber length pressure 平均压力average fiber length temperature 平均温度average fiber length velocity 平均速度avometer 安伏欧计，万能（电）表，三用电表axial 轴向axial bond 主键；轴键axial flow pump 轴流泵axis 轴Aylesford refiner （实验室用）Aylesford盘磨机（英国制）azo compounds 偶氮化合物azo compounds dye(stuff) 偶氮染料absorbing board 吸收纸板accordion board 手风琴纸板acoustic(al) board 隔音纸板advertisement board 广告招贴用纸板air-dried board 风干纸板album board 相册纸板alkaline-proof soap box board 肥皂包装用抗碱纸板ammunition board 弹筒纸板antique board 仿古纸板anti-tarnish board 防锈纸板art board 铜版纸板artist board 绘画纸板artist's illustration board 绘画纸板asbestos board 石棉纸板asbestos asbestos board 石棉洋灰板asphalt board 沥青纸板，防潮纸板automobile board 汽车用纸板auto(mobiole) panel board 汽车仪表盘纸板abrasive coater 砂纸涂布机air brush coater 气刷涂布机air blade coater 气刀涂布机air doctor coater 气刀涂布机air knife coater 气刀涂布机arch bed brush coater 刷式拱形涂布机asphalt coater 沥青涂布机acid cooking 酸法蒸煮alkaline cooking 碱法蒸煮actic acid 乳酸actic acid method （纸板施胶度）abrasive paper 砂纸abrasive base paper 砂纸原纸absorbent paper 吸水纸absorbing paper 吸水纸；吸收纸account book paper 帐簿纸accunting machine paper 计算机用纸acid free paper 无酸纸acid proof paper 耐酸纸acid resistant paper 耐酸纸acoustic paper 隔音纸actinometer paper 溴化银印相纸active paper 吸湿纸adding machine paper 计算机纸address label paper 地址标签纸adhesive paper 胶粘纸advertising paper 广告纸，招贴纸agate paper 仿大理石纸agate marble paper 仿大理石纸age resistant paper 耐老化纸air paper 航空信纸air dried paper 风干纸。
纸张的种类(英文)
岳阳林纸股份有限公司产品标签复印纸 copy paper环保复印纸 environmental copy paper全木浆笔记本纸100% wood pulp notebook paper笔记本纸 notebook paper环保笔记本纸 environmental notebook paper全木浆胶版纸 100% wood pulp offset paper颜料整饰胶版纸 pigment offset paper环保胶版纸 environmental offset paper轻型胶版纸 Light weight offset paper典雅纯质纸Elegant pure quality paper胶印书刊纸 Offset book paper颜料整饰胶版纸B pigment offset paper B环保书刊纸environmental book paper精制量涂布纸 fine light weight coating paper低定量铜板纸 light weight art paper雅光铜板纸 matt coated paper新闻纸 newsprint paper超市广告纸 supermarket poster paper工业淋膜原纸 industrial membrane lamination paper铸涂原纸 cast coated base paper热敏原纸 thermal base paper铜板原纸 art base paper无碳复写原纸 carbonless copy base paper格拉辛原纸 glassine base paper食品包装纸 food packaging paper高白胶版纸 high white offset paper数码印刷纸 digital printing paper数码快印纸 digital fast printing paper数码轻型纸 digital light paper纸张的种类（中英文对照）1.涂布纸：以纸张为素材，表面以多种化学成分组合成涂布液，利用特殊方式将涂布液平均涂在纸张素材上，使纸张达到特殊的功用。
知识网络研究（Ⅱ）——知识网络的概念、内涵和特征
知识网络研究（Ⅱ）——知识网络的概念、内涵和特征情报ISSN1000—0135第26卷第3期470—476,2007年6月JOURNALOFTHECHINASOCIETYFORSCIENTInC ANDTECHNICALINFORMATIONISSN1000—0135V o1.26No.3.470—476June2007知识网络研究(Ⅱ)知识网络的概念,内涵和特征赵蓉英(武汉大学信息资源研究中心,武汉430072)摘要文章首先基于Elsevier,ProQuest,CNKI{中国期刊全文数据库》和VIP{中文科技期刊数据库》四个国内外着名的数据库对国内外知识网络的研究现状进行了文献调研和分析;然后,通过对处于不同时空,不同研究领域的学者提出的"知识网络"概念的内涵和外延的分析,作者不仅从情报学定量化观点和知识组织的角度提出并论述了知识网络的情报学概念,而且还分别从知识网络的功能和知识网络的结构特征的角度进一步对知识网络的概念进行了界定;最后,深入分析和探讨了知识网络的内涵,并提出了广义知识网络和狭义知识网络的特征.关键词知识网络知识管理知识节点知识链StudyonKnowledgeNetwork(Part1I)——TheNotionandCharactersofKnowledgeNetworkZhaoRongying (CenterfortheStudiesofInformationResourcesofWuhanUniters,Wohan430072)AbstractThispaperfirstdescribesthestatusquoofKnowledgeNetworkbasedonfourfamous databasesinthew0rldnamelyElsevier,ProQuest,CNKIandVIP.Thenanalyzestheconnotationandextensionofth econceptofKnowledgeNetwork whichputsforwardbydifferentfieldresearchersatdifferentplaceandindifferenttime,andals obringsforwardtheconceptof KnowledgeNetworkininformationsciencenotonlywiththeviewofquantitationandKnowl edgeOrganization,butalsowiththe viewofthefunctionandthestructureofKnowledgeNetwork.Finally,makesfurtherdiscussi onandanalysisabouttheconnotation andthecharacteristicoftheGeneralKnowledgeNetworkandSpecialKnowledgeNetwork. Keywordsknowledgenetwork,knowledgemanagement,knowledgenode,knowledgechai n目前知识管理领域正在发生的一切变化基本表明了知识网络在知识管理中越来越重要,正如克里斯琴?赫格伯格(ChristianHogbe)所指出:"为了利于今后的生存,企业应该需要知识网络,由它来获取与存储所有已经创建的知识和新观念,并把这些知识传递给适当的人,以便这些知识可得到再利用和创造更多的价值."与20世纪90年代中期流行的"知识管理"概念相比较,当时占主导地位的组织理念是"计算机一样的组织".与之相应,当时对知识管理的概念是创建与维护一个用来捕捉组织专门知识的独立数据仓库.现在随着因特网及Web的迅猛发展,这些观念已经过时了.如今的组织理念成为"网络化组织".有一本贸易方面的书甚至用"那是网络,傻瓜!"来作为其中一节的标题.从独立式数据仓库到知识网络,概念的重定义表明智能在网络中作为一个整体而非单个节点存在(Contractor,2002).这些知识网络含有使组织成员得以生产产品和服务的集体性技能.所以,知识管理的挑战已经被重新概念化了,它是我们应如何理解引起知识网络联系得以产生,维持,分解,重组的心理,社会,传播机制的挑战.最近的知识管理的研究文献表明,知识网络已收稿日期:2006年12月11日作者简介:赵蓉英,女,博士,武汉大学信息管理学院副教授,硕士生导师,武汉大学中国科学评价研究中心副主任.主要研究方向:知识网络与知识管理,信息计量与科学评价.1)国家自然科学基金资助项目"网上学术信息的分布与变化规律研究及其应用"(70673071).-——470?-——知识网络研究(Ⅱ)——知识网络的概念,内涵和特征成为组织中实现知识管理的有效实践工具和实施知识管理的主要平台,实现知识网络化已成为企业实施知识管理的基本方法.在知识社会中,没有任何人,任何组织能拥有足够的知识,单独完成日益多变而复杂化的工作,组织成员必须相互配合,投入到系统性的知识工作中才能完成目标任务.因此,人们将网络的协作性功能引入知识活动当中,从而产生了知识网络的概念.因此,毋容置疑,正是互联网和知识管理的发展催生了知识网络.1知识网络的研究现状本文以"知识网络"作为篇名关键词对Elsevier,P/oQuest,CNKI((中国期刊全文数据库》和VIP((中文科技期刊数据库》四个着名中外期刊数据库,以及ProQuest博士论文全文数据库(PQDD),万方《中国学位论文全文数据库》,CNKI((中国优秀博硕士学位论文数据库》和CALLS高校学位论文库进行文献检索调研,见表1.表1有关"知识网络"的论文数量分布CNl(IVIP万方CNl(ICAIjSElsevierProQuestPQDD期刊库期刊库博硕士库博硕士库学位论文论文数『70706261245O1.1国内外学位论文中关于知识网络的研究现状对以上在ProQuest博士论文全文数据库(PQDD),万方《中国学位论文全文数据库》,CNKI((中国优秀博硕士学位论文库》和CALLS高校学位论文库关于国内外学位论文的检索的结果分析可知,目前关于知识网络研究的研究成果及文献,国外检索到的2篇中只有1篇与知识网络研究相关,即"Dutkiewicz,KerithA.关于知识网络中大学网站的分析研究".国内4篇文献中只有2篇与知识网络密切相关,分别是中国科学院科技政策与管理科学研究所王露关于"中国知识网络的动力学分析与调控政策模拟"(1999)和西安交通大学赵霞的"现代企业知识网络型高层决策系统的创新研究"(2000),这两篇都是关于组织知识网络的研究.1.2国内外期刊文献中关于知识网络的研究现状以上国内外期刊文献调研结果显示,国外对知识网络的研究文献有70篇,国内关于知识网络的研究成果与国外的情况相似,但文献量为60余篇,略少于国外,看来国内外对知识网络的研究都已开始关注.本人目前检索到的国内外文献表明:知识网络的研究始于20世纪90年代中期.不同的学者对知识网络的概念的内涵和外延具有不同的认识.据报道,国外关于"知识网络"的概念最早是由瑞典工业界(M.J.Beckmann,1995)提出的,对"知识网络"的研究多集中在实际构建方面,同时也对知识网络的经济,市场结构模型进行了大量分析和研究.1998年,美国国家科学基金会(NSF)在关于"知识网络"一个课题中明确阐述了知识网络是一个社会网络,该网络能提供知识,信息的利用等.目前国外关于知识网络的最新研究动向主要是管理学领域对知识网络概念的引入,关于知识网络的要素,性质,类型,构建,以及对知识网络在知识管理和知识经济中的作用进行了一些分析和研究,同时也有一些关于""的网站开始出现.此外, Serafind.Talisayon"以知识和人——知识网络"为题在((BusinessWorld))刊物上分6次连载介绍分析了数种基于组织知识共享的知识网络社团,如"communitiesofpractice","S&Tcommunities(Online ScienceandTechnologyCommunities)"和"theonline corporateuniversity",对美国1998年由国家科学基金会(theNationalScienceFoundation,NSF)资助6200万美元经费用于扩展知识网络领域的研发项目也作了介绍.该项目的目的就是要建立一个集人,组织和社会之间信息知识的交流达到新水平的科学基础. 国内关于知识网络的文献调研结果显示,出现"知识网络"的最早文献是郭其旭在1989年《福建图书馆学刊》第1期"漫谈知识网络:——例举杜甫研究图书资料在《中图法》中的分布状况"一文,表明是图书情报领域最早引入"知识网络"这一概念的. 1990年我国情报学者刘植惠提出,借助超文本技术可构架某一领域的机读知识网络库,并认为超文本的这种动态知识网络,就是知识基因理论研究的极好素材.随后,在1994年我国教育领域分别有3人在不同的文献中提出了基于"知识网络"概念的教学方法,这个概念的出现是教育学对人的知识学习过程在教与学的方法中总结的产物.这种方法一经提出,就受到各科教师和学生的普遍欢迎."知识网络"教学法是指各科老师通过帮助和教学生用联系的方法将已学知识联系并构建成一个"知识网络图".通过构建知识网络图来帮助学生把所学知识点融为一体,铸成一个有机整体,而不再是一盘散沙情报第26卷第3期2007年6月或零星的知识,使学生用联系的方法进行记忆,从而达到以巩固和加强记忆的目的.这种方法便于学生记得住,想得起,把知识网络刻印在大脑中.1996年计算机科学人工智能领域和管理学领域开始关注并进行"知识网络"的研究,出现的早期文献是:赵勇,杨明忠在《武汉汽车工业大学》1996年第5期"智能并行设计的知识状态研究"一文;随后有黄波,倪重匡等的"故障诊断专家系统的新型知识网络推理模型","故障诊断专家系统的知识网络设计";韩国的申光龙(1999)在《南开管理评论》"知识管理时代的知识信息网络"一文中将知识网络概念应用于经济学和管理学领域,以及张作荣的"知识网络在推动风险投资产业化过程中的作用",肖宏文,黄瑞华的"陕西省信息产业的现状分析及知识网络发展模式初探".慕继丰,冯宗宪等(2001)"知识管理和知识管理网络"一文在分析和说明了学习和组织学习,知识和组织知识,知识管理的概念,概括了有关文献对知识的分类,分析了知识交流的模式和知识管理的目的,并提出了建立组织知识管理网络的基本思路.从文献的研究内容上看,在检索到的60余篇文献中,近40篇是教育学工作者对采用知识网络化的教学方法在语,数,外,理,化,生,史,地,政各科的研究和实际运用的经验总结.其余多数是对知识网络的描述,介绍以及在人工智能研究和经济管理方面的应用.在理论研究方面,王铮等的"知识网络动态与政策控制(I):模型的建立"和"知识网络动态与政策控制(Ⅱ)——中国国家创新体系调控模拟"对组织体系形成的知识网络进行了动力学行为分析, 研究了对组织知识网络投资的知识产出效率;李丹, 俞竹超等在"知识网络的构建过程分析"一文中提出了知识网络构建过程中的构成要素,构建原则和构建方法.最新的研究有叶鹏,樊孝忠在"动态语义知识网络构建研究"中基于目前语义知识库研究现状提出的一种新的语义知识结构模型——以OntologY (本体)概念为理论基础,将现有的中文信息库和离散型神经元网络结构相结合,构建了一个具有自学习,自适应能力的神经语义知识网络模型.张丽妮在"基于的知识管理研究"中对欧洲知识管理顾问与工具开发者联盟创建的一种集成"过程" 和"产品"两种知识管理途径的知识网络() 进行了介绍.盛小平在"基于知识网络的知识管理研究"中从微观与宏观动态层次探讨基于知识网络的知识管理框架.综上所述,国内外关于知识网络的研究大多是描述,介绍和分析基于组织知识管理,知识共享的知识网络类型,模式以及构建的研究.总之,对于知识网络的研究还处于起步阶段,目前还没有形成比较全面,系统的研究理论和研究方法.2知识网络的概念描述从情报2007年第2期"知识网络研究(I)——知识网络概念演进之探究"一文中关于"知识网络"(KnowledgeNetwork,简称KN)概念的演进以及国内外研究现状的陈述可以看出,不同时代,不同领域和不同学科的人,也就是说处在不同时空的人对"知识网络"概念的内涵和外延具有不同的认识. 现代认知心理学家E.加涅(1985)在对知识本质的研究中这样描述"知识网络":陈述性知识和程序性知识两大类型知识的关系是产生式镶嵌在命题网络之中,共同构成"知识网络";知识网络是作为两类知识在人的大脑内系统化地存储方式.加涅是从知识网络的构成内容和知识网络的作用描述知识网络.Latour(1987)…从资源的角度认为,"知识网络资源"的含义是一个"相互联结(inter.1inked)"的"结点和节点"(knotsandnodes)之网,装载了分散在一个较大的空间中的资源集(concentrationof resources),而这个空间就组成了这个学科的研究领域.知识网络被看作是一个存储包含了各个部分的大量的,复杂的专业技术,经验和知识积累的知识库,内部和外部的人员都可以使用这个知识库.因此,知识网络这样形成:①"结点和节点"(knotsand nodes)中装载了知识资源,②当需求产生时,这些"结点和节点"(knotsandnodes)间开始产生交叉联系cross.cuttingties)和链接(1inkages)(Podolnyeta1., 1996),③这些联系(ties)使得知识资源相互补充和丰富,反过来,不管是对每个网络成员还是整个网络来说,这种联系使得每个功能更加强大,广泛和深化.管理学领域关于"知识网络"的描述主要有两种认识:①知识网络的经济学模型j,在此模型中Beckmann认为,知识网络是进行科学知识生产和传播的机构和活动.在这里,知识的运用即知识的消费方面没有被予以考虑,这是因为消费可以发生在任何形式的经济活动中;同时,M.J.Beckmann将知识网络的概念限制在纯学术范围内,不考虑工业对知识网络研究(Ⅱ)——知识网络的概念,内涵和特征知识的生产和传播.②知识网络及市场结构模型,K.Kobayashi认为公司是知识网络的节点,它通过R&D活动扩大其知识存储量.K.Kobayashi主要研究了知识渗透(spillover)对市场结构的影响,每一节点的R&D最优政策以及与知识生产技术和知识可获得性.V ernaAllee则认为知识网络是通过内部群体或共同兴趣者相互关联构成,这里"群体"可能是一群共享工作经验或技术知识的职业同行;并强调知识网络具有"流动性":"我认为知识网络也是不定群,人们在知识群中整合的时间也仅能维持至完成某一特定任务.然后,他们解散并转移到其他项目和知识群中.这种关系不能被'结构化',也不能被设计.他们作为操作系统的某一项特征出现,同时, 他们是不断流动的."美国科学基金会(NSF)(1999)给知识网络的定义是:知识网络是一个社会网络,该网络提供知识, 信息的利用等.即知识网络是这样一个概念,由学术专家,信息,知识组成的复合集被聚集成成一个"凝聚集体",用来分析一些特定的问题.知识网络关注跨越时间空间的知识整体.在这种背景下,一个知识网络可以被定义为是对生产,共享和利用一个共同知识仓库的这些个体的合作.一些新近召开的研讨会已经详细说明了关于知识网络人性化问题,同时他们还争论了关于知识网络的构想是对知识网络和人们之间关系的重新定义.因为,知识网络在因特网出现之前早就已经存在了.类似地,Hameri和Nordberg将万维网的建立描述成高能物理学者在交流文件时的一种需要.他们还断言,这个新工具无非就是一个现有技术,网络工具和协议,文件格式及台式电脑的应用的集合.因此,知识网络即使不一定能体现新技术的发展,但是一定有能力综合现有技术和系统以促进知识共享. 刘慧认为:组织同其环境共同形成一个由供应链,产业链,知识链共同支撑的全方位的知识网络环境.Coates认为,知识管理不应该被限定于只对组织内部知识资源进行管理,更应该对组织外部各利益群体,组织机构,政府机关所拥有的一系列与组织运作所需的知识资源加强管理,并将其融人到知识网络中.知识网络是由若干单元(子系统)构成的相互之间进行知识交流,知识供应的网络结构体系.姜照华等从知识供应链的角度分析产业集群的形成机理,提出基于知识供应链的知识网络结构和网络创新能力函数【8].认为从区域经济角度看,知识网络是区域创新体系的"骨架",而企业,高校,中介机构,政府等则是区域知识网络结构上的一个个节点(单元).在这些节点之间存在着多元的,交互的,非线性的,强耦合的相互作用关系,由此形成一个有机整体——区域创新体系.而从另一个角度看,构成区域经济体系的各行业之间的相互作用(上下游的配套关系,横向的合作关系等)也形成了某种知识网络,这些行业就是这种知识网络的各单元.从学科群的角度看,知识网络是由若干学科构成的有机联系体系.知识网络的形成主要由于知识单元共享和交易知识的需要,知识网络大大方便了知识的共享和转移,降低了企业进行知识交易的成本.在市场机制的作用下,知识网络中的企业可以同自己所需知识的供应者讨价还价,达到双赢的结果.知识网络中的知识交易并不一定是现金现货,由于知识本身具有两重性,即显性和隐性,所以即使技术转让一类具有明显交易特征的知识转移也必须要通过相关技术人员的培训才能实现,起主要作用的还是隐性知识.集群下的知识网络中,许多知识供应链相互影响,同一个企业可能处于多个知识供应链之中.产业集群中的知识网络结构中,知识网络中的单元可以是企业,科研院所,科技中介机构,政府等.另外,国外从事知识管理研究的学者对知识网络的定义大致是:知识网络指的是一批人,资源和他们之间的关系,为了知识的积累和利用,通过知识创造,知识转移,促进新的知识利用.此定义主要是针对企业内部及企业外部知识的创造,利用和传播. 还有学者研究后指出:企业的知识系统不是以简单的直线型的知识链形式存在的,而是以一种拓朴结构形式存在的网络结构.这种网络性有两个方面:①是知识本身因某种关联(如因果关系,逻辑关系)而相互影响形成的网络,例如以学科为主体而聚集成局域网形式的专业知识,在这种网络结构中,节点是某一类专用的知识,这种网络性是在知识形成的过程中形成的,一般不会变化,并非知识管理所研究的对象;②是知识载体之间的网络关系,如以企业信息为主体聚集的广义综合知识网,节点是掌握特定知识的人或存储某类知识的载体,在这个网络中,各节点之间因某种关系(如业务流程,信息流程等)链接起来,各节点中知识的差异性和相似性是网络结构存在的基础.节点之间可能在某一项任务或某一个主体联合在一起去完成某一种活动,也情报第26卷第3期2007年6月可能因联系的消失而断开.如前所述,关于知识网络概念的定义具有多种不同的认识.笔者认为,关于"知识网络"的概念可以从定性和定量两个方面描述,上面所述的均可看成是对"知识网络"的定性描述.如果从情报学定量化观点和知识组织的角度描述知识网络,可以抽象为:知识网络(KnowledgeNetwork,简称KN)就是由知识节点和知识关联构成的网络化的知识体系.该体系的大小和构成方式可有所不同,同知识一样,其载体可以是人脑,也可以是组织或其他物质形式.此概念也可具体表述为:由知识元素,知识点,知识单元或知识库作为"节点",以知识间的关联作为"边" 或"链"而构成的网络称为知识网络.本文关注的"知识网络",就是一种"节点"与"边"的集合,不过它是"知识节点"和"知识边"的集合.其中知识边的功能是传递知识,知识节点的功能则分别包括知识的获取,处理,再生和实施.因此,知识网络的定义也可以表述为:具备知识的存取,传递,处理,再生,实施功能的网络.这一定义主要强调的是知识网络的功能.此外,从知识的网状结构特征还可以进一步推论出这样的定义:知识网络就是知识的空间结构的集合.即知识网络是由众多的知识节点与知识关联(外联)构成的集合.其中,知识因子由概念或事物组成,从不同的认识角度也可称为"知识元","知识点","知识单元"等不同的称谓.知识关联可分为知识内联关联和知识外联关联两种.知识内联关联构成知识个体,链接知识的内涵联系;知识外联关联是知识个体问的外延联系,也就是构成知识网络的各种关联链接.3知识网络的内涵知识网络的目标是:促进跨学科,跨语言和跨文化的交流;提高不同知识源,不同领域和非媒体类型的知识处理和集成;提高团队,组织或社区有效率, 跨地区或跨时间的工作;理解这种新链接的伦理,法律和社会隐含意义.从而实现"不论何时何地的所有公民都能够使用任何与因特网连接的数字设备查找所有人类知识.通过因特网,他们可以访问全世界由传统图书馆,博物馆,档案馆,大学,政府机构,专门组织和甚至个人创建的数字收藏中的知识……"这个知识网络的终极目标.也就是说,知识网络的目标是把技术与人联结起来,实现智力资本,结构资本和客户资本的有效结合….随着研究的深入,人们给出了知识网络的广义和狭义的含义.3.1广义知识网络及其内涵广义知识网络:基于人脑细胞或基于人脑细胞和各种媒介载体而存在的知识网络称为广义知识网络,即存在于人的脑细胞中或存在于人的脑细胞和依附和记录于各种媒介载体(即脑外载体,如纸张, 胶片,磁盘,光盘等)的知识网络称为广义知识网络. 由此可见,从广义知识网络的构成来看,广义知识网络有两种类型:由主观知识或隐性知识构成的主观知识网络或称隐性知识网络.由主观知识(隐性知识)和客观知识(显性知识)共同构成的的混合型知识网络.广义知识网络的含义指:"知识网络是知识参与者间的一种社会网络,能够实现个人,团体,组织等层次上的知识创造与共享."¨因此,"人们通过知识网络进行信息合作与交流,"是实现"个人与组织间知识的传达者"¨,是人们的知识和洞见的相互作用机制.网络成员间的关系可以是自治的,也可以是相互作用,相互依存的一种互惠,稳定的关系.它不仅改变了我们认识世界的方式,而且改变了我们认识自己的方式.从以上管理学对知识网络的定义和目标进行分析,可以看出知识网络(组织的知识管理网络)的内涵有以下几个方面:知识网络是一个社会网络或是由超链接的文献知识网络.在这个网络中,每个人获取知识,信息的机会是均等的,人人都有自由选区知识与信息的权利.知识网络是一个跨地区,国际性的交流网络或信息化网络,它涵盖了不同语言,不同学科的知识,是一个知识海洋.知识网络强调知识的处理和集成,需要较强的技术支持.不仅是信息技术和网络技术支持,知识组织,知识重组,知识发现等技术也是同样重要的.在对知识进行处理的基础上进行集成和管理,通过知识传播提高其利用率.在知识网络的构建中会出现信息伦理,信息安全,知识产权等方面的问题,知识网络的发展中需要首先解决这些问题,以促进知识在社会中的流传. 知识网络关注的是获取新的不同层次的知识知识网络研究(Ⅱ)——知识网络的概念,内涵和特征集成,信息流和人们,机构与社区之间的活动.在建立知识网络时,人与知识是密不可分,人是知识创新和知识共享的来源和动力.正是人们出于寻找答案,追求创新才创造了新知识.知识网络是由若干单元(子系统)构成的相互。
印刷包装行业常用英语
1.纸张：paper克重：GSM开版：imposition2.钉装：binding（锁线装，平装，车线装，胶装，YO 装，板书装，骑马钉装（Section sewn, Paperbook binding, single sewn, perfect binding, YO binding, board book binding，saddle stitched binding）3.印刷：printing （平版印刷，胶印或柯式印刷，凸版印刷，柔版印刷，丝网印刷，凹版印刷，（sheetfed printing, offset printing, relief printing, flexography, screen printing, intaglio printing.）4.表面处理：finishing5.装订程序：binding process6.配件：component/accessories7.包装：packing8.运输：transportation9.船务：shipping10.报关：custom11.汇率：currency/rate12.利润：markup profit13.订货：indent/order/purchase/book14.板纸书：board book15.立体书：pop-ups book16.揭卡书：lift and flap book17.推拉书：pull and push book18.盒：box19．卡板-Pallet20.出口包装外箱：Export carton21．采购订单：Purchase Order常用纸：common stock尺寸-size （成品尺寸：TPS）拼版：Film imposition or montage，make-up二、纸张种类both (2/s)side art paper―双粉/双铜- C2S art board or Gloss art paper C2S art paper(80 -157gsm) or C2S art board (190gsm -450gsm)matt art paper(M/A)―哑粉纸 matt art card(M/A card)―哑粉卡wood free paper(W/F)―双胶/书纸单粉卡：one side art card （C1S art board）C1S art paper (170gsm) or C1S art board(190gsm -450gsm)grey board ，millboard，Chipboard―纸板,灰板fancy paper―花纹纸或特种纸cast coated paper/ cast coated card―玻璃纸/卡 (Kraft liner board) ivory card/uncoated paper―白通卡recycle paper―再造纸/再生纸synthetic(Yupo)paper―合成纸NCR paper―药水纸self-adhesive paper/label-不干胶/贴纸 (Sticker sheet) mirror-镜面 transparent―透明moveable-可移 non-moveable―不可移 (Permanent) yellow back―黄底 white back―白底kraft paper/card―牛皮纸/牛皮卡white kraft paper/card―白色牛皮纸/卡原色牛皮: M/F bleached kraft paperwood free-书面 glossy art―粉面coated duplex board(with gray back)(G/B)―粉灰卡/灰底白 (简称：CCNB BOARD) duplex board with white back―灰芯白底白gold/silver/hologram paper(card)―金/银/镭射纸（卡）拷貝紙:Tissue paper/copy paperpaper grain direction―纸纹 stock―仓存colour wood free―彩色书纸clear/white）electrostatic vinyl paper―透明/白色）静电纸newsprint―新闻纸（News paper）light weight coated paper（LWC）―轻涂纸/充粉纸CUK Paperboard (Coated Unbleached Kraft) 涂布原色牛皮纸板 SBS Paperboard (Solid Bleached Sulfate) corrugated board/E-flute/stiffener―加固板/坑纸/E坑tracing paper―牛油纸/绘图纸acid-free paper―无酸纸acid-free and lignin-free paper―无酸及不变色纸glassine paper―白蜡纸/薄玻璃纸synthetic paper（yupo）―合成纸仿牛皮纸：Vellum paperRecycled Paperboards 回收纸板CCLB (Clay Coated Light Back)CCKB (Clay Coated Kraft Back)三、Finishing表面处理：Hot stamping―烫印 (Foil stamping)Graining―压纹 (Embossed line)Embossing―凹凸Silk screening―丝印Spot thickness UV―丝印局部厚UV , Spot UV--普通局部UV Glittering―丝印（金/幻彩）粉Glow in the dark―丝印夜光Fluorescent―丝印荧光PP(Glossy) lamination―光胶(OPP lamination)Matt lamination―哑胶Water-base lamination―水性裱胶Flocking-植毛UV varnishing（glossy/matt）―UV（光/哑）油Calender varnishing―磨光 (ENV calendering ) Blister varnishing―吸塑油Playing card varnishing―扑克牌油Machine varnishing―机过油（光/哑油）Press varnish Water-base varnishing―水油 (AQU varnish) Bronzing Varnish-珍珠水油Invisible UV ink-隐形油墨Thermo-powder--凸字粉Buckram--布紋Linenweave--幼布紋四、钉装―binding1.精装―hard cover/hardback/case bound2.平装―soft cover/limp bound3.假精装―flexible binding/flexibound/dutch bind4.胶装―perfect bound/adhesive binding/notch binding5.骑马钉―saddle stitching/2 wire stitching6.双线圈装―wire-O bound7.铁环装―ring binding8.螺旋装―spiral bound9.round back―圆脊10.square back―方脊11.hallow back―通脊12.casing in―上皮壳13.case making―做壳/造壳14.ribbon marker―丝带15.head&tail(H/T)bands―马头布或堵头布16.punch―冲17.punch to shape―冲成形18.die cut―啤19.kiss cut―啤半穿20.perforation―针线21.tipping―贴/首(singler)22.step indexing―打索引23.round corner―圆角24.hot melt―热溶(胶)25.hot seal―热压26.endpaper paste on―贴衬27.section sewn(thread sewn/smith sewn)穿线锁线28.side sewn―车侧线29.center sewn―车中线（Single sewn）30.center sewn in two section―车中线手反两帖31. 3 edges golden gilt―三边扫金（滚金边）minated indexing(index lamination)透明胶索引33.Painted edge-边着色五、其它1.text―内页/内文2.endpaper―衬纸3.lining(liner)―裱纸4.insert―插页5.wrap―包页6.tab―检索7.gate fold―拉页10.overlap cover(gate fold cover)―翼仔封面（cover extend flap）11.jacket―护封12.folder―档案夹13.envelope―信封14.index―索引15.photo bag―相袋 or 牛百叶（polypropyleve photo sleeve）16.album―相册17.mail card―邮寄卡/贺卡18.poster―海报19.writing pad―写字薄20.memo pad―记事薄21.jigsaw puzzle―切图/拼图22.easel―支架23.barcode―电脑条码（ISBN）24．配页-Collate25.Round corner—圆角26.Pocket-袋子27．Paper bag with hander-手提袋28.spacer―隔页29.cover―封面六、盒子Card box―卡盒Rigid box―浆糊盒Match box―火柴盒（盒套盒）Lid and base (bottom) box―天地盒Lid hinge base box --翻盖盒Slipcase―书套盒Folding box―折盒 (飞机盒)Truck box―啤牌盒Two tuck end box –双插盒Tray box―地盒（Base box, bottom box）PVC box―PVC胶盒Counter display box(counter pack)/display box―展示盒 Corrugated E-flute box―坑盒Box with zip lock-自动扣底盒Box with lock-扣底盒Case box—精装盒Round box--圆筒盒（Tube box）七、Components(Accessories)配件/附件：Ring binder―铁环圈（铁夹）Wiro-O―双线圈plastic/metal Spiral―胶/铁)线圈也叫蛇仔 Lock―锁Rivet―铆钉、窝钉Eyelet/Grommet―鸡眼Velcro―魔术贴（Fasten tape）Fur--皮革(Leather)Feather―毛绒Cloth―布Flexible magnetic rubber(Plastic magnet)―磁胶(Rubber magnetic sheet ) Metal plate―铁片blister―吸塑罩 (Vac form)Polybag（self-adhesive/zip lock)胶袋（自粘/密实）Double side adhesive tape―双面胶Hologram(hologram foil)―镭射(Laser)Sand paper―砂纸Hander—提手Plastic snap button –阴阳扣Tipped on flap—书口边的粘条Plastic handle--膠手挽Plastic lock--膠夾Vinyl sticker--靜電貼紙Metal lock--鐵鎖Wafer seal--透明圓貼紙Plush toys--公仔Playing cards--撲克牌Vinyl -膠公仔Ink Pad-印台Plastic tag-- 膠針Rubber stamp--膠印Flashlight--電筒Battery--電池Flock paper―植绒纸（植毛纸）Plastic(metal)hanger―胶/铁挂钩Screws―螺丝Satin ribbon―丝带String―绳Elastic(rubber)band(round/flat)―橡皮筋/橡皮根Magnet―磁铁/磁石Plastic band―胶带Lenticular（3D card）―立体卡Scented paper―香味纸Styrofoam―泡沫Ferrous rubber—铁粉片Sponge―海绵( Foam)Stiffener―加固板Hanger wire―挂钩Plastic calendar slide―月历胶夹Module--電子發聲器Candy buttons--糖粒Piano module--鋼琴發聲器Plastic clock hands--時鐘膠針Pen--鋼筆/水筆Pencil sharpener--鉛筆刨Holographic sticker--雷射貼紙Highlighter--螢光筆Badge--徽章Eraser--擦字膠PVC / Acetate--透明膠片Crayon--蜡筆Printed Acetate--印好膠片Cable wire--鐵線Hang tag--膠勾Rubber band--橡筋八、包装40” container-468*89*88”(H)(11887*2260*2235mm) Pallet―卡板（US pallet:40*48*6”，Euro pallet31.5*47.25*6”） Wood pallet--木制卡板Gloss weight—净重FOB--Free On Board (離岸價)Ex-work—出厂价CNF(port) Cost for Ocean freightCIF (port) Cost for Insurance and oceanfreight Loose Cargo Load --散貸 (簡稱LCL)Full Container Load-柜貸 (簡稱FCL)Terminal Handling Charges 碼頭操作費用Fumigation--消毒ETD ：Estimated Time of Departure (預定離港日期) ETA：Estimated Time of Arrival (預計到岸日期)Ex-factory：離廠日期Payment term—支付条件（TT OA LC BL）20” container―228*89*88”(H) (5791*2260*2235mm) FIS (warehouse) Cost for ocean freight ， insurance and inland trucking DDU DDP。
尽我最大的努力去做什么英语作文
尽我最大的努力去做什么英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Doing My Best at Creative WritingEver since I was a little kid, I've loved telling stories and letting my imagination run wild. I would spend hours making up adventures with my toys or drawing fantastical scenes from my dreams. As I got older, my passion for creative writing grew stronger. There's just something magical about being able to craft entire worlds and characters out of nothing but words on a page.When I was in middle school, I decided that I wanted to become a novelist someday. I started filling up notebooks with short stories, descriptions of made-up lands, and pages of dialogue between my imaginary characters. Some of it was probably pretty cringeworthy looking back, but I didn't care - I was hooked on writing. It became my favorite outlet forself-expression and a way to escape from the stresses of everyday life.In high school, I took as many English and creative writing courses as I could. My teachers helped me hone my skills and pointed me towards some of the great writers whose work I could learn from. I became kind of obsessed with authors like J.K. Rowling, John Green, Margaret Atwood and Khaled Hosseini. I loved analyzing their writing styles, plotting, and character development. At the same time, I was working on my own novel that I hoped could maybe be the next big hit.When it came time to apply to colleges, there was no doubt in my mind that I wanted to major in something writing-related. I ended up at a university with a great English/Creative Writing program. Finally, I was going to be surrounded by other students and professors who shared my passion! Those four years were a whirlwind of workshops, writing groups, reading famous novels with a critical eye, and getting constant feedback on my work.There were plenty of late nights agonizing over a single sentence or chapter, but I've never worked harder or been more dedicated to something in my life. My professors pushed me to take risks with my writing, to dig deeper into developing complex characters and themes. My fellow writers gave me honest critiques that weren't always easy to hear, but only mademe stronger. I learned to grow a thick skin and not take criticism personally, but as an opportunity to improve my craft.Outside of class, I lapped up every writing opportunity I could find. I joined the staff of our university's literary magazine and wrote articles about campus life for the school newspaper. I entered prestigious writing contests and landed a couple of small prizes and publications. I even worked up the courage to start a personal blog to share some of my creative non-fiction with the world.Despite all this work, I still didn't feel like my writing was anywhere close to being good enough to get published as a novel after graduation. So I decided to get a Master's degree to devote two more years to taking my skills to the next level. My MFA program was intense - writing every single day, participating in master classes with famous authors, and working one-on-one with professors who were renowned writers themselves. I soaked up as much knowledge as I could like a sponge.The countless hours of writing, rewriting, editing, and revising finally paid off. Near the end of my Master's program, I mustered up the courage to start querying literary agents about my novel that I had been crafting for years. To my disbelief andabsolute delight, I landed an agent who loved my book and believed in me. Just a few months after graduating, my debut novel hit the shelves!Of course, that was just the start of a long journey as a published author. Writing books worthy of being published is perhaps the greatest professional challenge I've ever taken on. Each new novel requires diving down to the depths of my creativity, polishing my prose relentlessly, and being fearless when it comes to putting my work out there for the world to read and critique. It's an emotionally draining yet incredibly fulfilling process.There have been times when I've stared at an blank page for hours, crippled by writer's block and insecurity about my abilities. There have been crushing moments of rejection from publishers, agents, and contests that make me question if I'm truly talented enough to make it in such a competitive industry. But no matter how low my confidence dips or how steep the metaphorical mountain of challenges may seem, I always find my way back to writing.You see, storytelling isn't just some hobby or job for me - it's my life's passion and purpose. When I'm deep in the creative flow, nailing down the perfect turn of phrase or watching mycharacters take on lives of their own, there's no other feeling quite like it. All the struggle, vulnerability, and self-doubt fades away. I'm simply doing what I was born to do and what makes me happier than anything else.So no matter how daunting the world of professional writing may get, I will always face it head on and give it every ounce of hard work, grit and determination I have. Getting published is a dream come true, but for me, it was never the ultimate end goal. As long as I'm putting pen to paper (or fingers to keyboard) and creating new worlds through writing, I'm living my best life.Do I have what it takes to be the next literary superstar? Who knows - but I'll be damned if I don't give it my absolute best shot. My passion for the written word burns brighter than ever. With each new book, I have the opportunity to transport myself and readers to realms of limitless imagination. To my core, I'm a storyteller. It's who I am and what I'll strive to keep doing, no matter how many obstacles lie ahead.So to all my fellow creative warriors out there, I say this: Never stop fighting for your artistic dreams and desires. If writing, or any creative pursuit, is what sets your soul on fire, then pour every last drop of hard work, sacrifice and love into it. There's no feeling more rewarding than knowing you gave something yourall and no regrets. That's what I've discovered through devoting my life to creative writing so far. With unwavering passion and perseverance, who knows what beautiful things we can create?篇2Doing My Utmost to Achieve My DreamsEver since I was a young child, I've had big dreams for my future. While my friends wanted to be astronauts or professional athletes, my aspirations were a bit different. I've always wanted to make a positive impact on the world around me. As I've grown older, that desire has only become stronger and more defined. I know that in order to achieve my lofty goals, I'll need to do my absolute utmost - putting in hard work, persevering through challenges, and never giving up.My dreams of helping others and leaving the world a little better than I found it have led me towards a career in medicine. I want to be a doctor, working tireless hours to help save lives and alleviate suffering. It's an incredibly difficult path that will require years of intensive study, training, and incredible dedication. But I'm ready to give it my all because I know it will be worth it in the end.In many ways, the journey has already begun. Getting into a top university with a highly competitive pre-med program was my first major goal, and it took doing my utmost academically to make it happen. In high school, I loaded up on advanced science and math classes, joined academic clubs, and spent countless hours studying late into the night. When others were out socializing, I was hitting the books, determined to get the best grades possible.It paid off when I got into my dream school, but I know that was just the beginning. If anything, the workload and competition has only intensified at the university level. My course load is incredibly demanding, filled with intensive classes like organic chemistry, physics, biology, and more. The academic requirements for getting into medical school are no joke.But I've continued to rise to the challenge, doing whatever it takes to succeed. I go to every single class, participate actively, and re-write my notes after each session to solidify the concepts. When others are heading home for the weekend, I'm studying in the library or reviewing practice exams. I form study groups, meet with tutors, and take advantage of every available resource. Sacrificing my social life is hard, but achieving my goals means more to me.It's not just about academics though. Doing my utmost means being a well-rounded individual who can handle anything thrown my way. That's why I've gotten involved in numerous extracurricular activities, volunteering efforts, research projects, and clinical experience opportunities. From working at a hospital to studying rhesus negatives in a lab, I've spent my "free" time gaining invaluable hands-on experiences.And when I'm not studying or building my resume, I'm working on personal development in other areas. I attend workshops on public speaking, practice my clinical skills, and read books and articles to expand my knowledge base. Everything I do is oriented towards becoming the best possible doctor I can be one day.Of course, it's not always easy. There are certainly times when I'm overwhelmed by the immense workload and pressure. When I pull my third all-nighter in a row, doubt and fatigue inevitably start to creep in. During those moments, I remind myself why I'm doing this - to turn my childhood dream into a reality. I picture myself walking across that stage at graduation, donning a white coat and heading off to make a real difference.The hard work, the sacrifices, the challenges - they'll all be worth it. And that's what keeps me going through every toughexam, every stressful clinical rotation, and every difficult class. I know that the prize of becoming a doctor and helping those in need is waiting if I just persevere and keep doing my utmost.Whenever I feel like giving up, I think about the impact I want to have and know that I'll get there through sheer determination and effort. Whether it's pioneering newlife-saving treatments, bringing healthcare to underserved areas, or just being a compassionate doctor who helps their patients, I have a clear vision of what I want to achieve. And I'm going to exhaust every last ounce of effort to turn that vision into reality.It won't be easy, but nothing worth achieving ever is. There will be obstacles, setbacks, and moments when quitting seems tempting. But I'll never give up because this dream means everything to me. I'll keep studying late at night, juggling a million commitments, and pushing myself to my absolute limits. I'll do whatever it takes, going above and beyond in every aspect of my life.Because in the end, that's what separates those who achieve great things from those who simply dream about them. It's the relentless effort, the tireless work ethic, the unwavering perseverance through hardship. It's doing your utmost each and every day, never letting up until you've achieved your goals.That's my philosophy and mindset. I may be exhausted, stressed, and running on fumes at times. But I'll never stop doing my utmost to turn my dream of becoming a doctor into reality. After all, isn't that the entire point of having big goals and lofty aspirations? If they were easy, everyone would do it. It's the journey, the blood, sweat, and tears poured into the pursuit of something great that makes it all worth it.So I'll keep charging forward with unwavering determination. When I finally don that white coat, I'll know that all the hard work, sacrifice, and effort put into doing my utmost made it happen. And that moment will be more rewarding and meaningful than I can even imagine.篇3Doing My Best to Become a Skilled PianistEver since I was a little kid, I've been drawn to the beautiful sounds of the piano. There's something magical about the way those 88 keys can create such a wide range of melodies and harmonies. From the powerful, thundering chords of a Beethoven sonata to the delicate, haunting melodies of a Chopin nocturne, the piano has the ability to stir the soul in ways that few other instruments can match.I still vividly remember the day when I was six years old, sitting on my grandmother's lap as she played some simple tunes on her old upright piano. I was completely mesmerized by the way her fingers danced across the keys, coaxing out those familiar melodies. That's when I decided that I wanted to learn to play the piano too.My parents were fully supportive of my newfound passion, and they wasted no time in enrolling me for piano lessons with Mrs. Henderson, a kind-hearted but strict teacher who lived just a few blocks away. Those early lessons were a struggle, as I grappled with the basics of reading music notation, proper finger positioning, and developing the coordination required to play with both hands simultaneously.But slowly, through countless hours of practice and Mrs. Henderson's patient guidance, I began to improve. What had once seemed like an insurmountable challenge gradually became more manageable, and I started to experience the sheer joy of being able to play simple pieces from start to finish without making too many mistakes.As the years went by, my skills continued to grow, and my repertoire expanded to include works by the great classical composers like Mozart, Chopin, and Debussy. With each newpiece I learned, I found myself falling deeper and deeper in love with the piano and the incredible range of emotions that its music could evoke.However, it wasn't always smooth sailing. There were times when I felt frustrated and discouraged, particularly when faced with a technically demanding piece that seemed impossible to master. I remember one particularly challenging work –Rachmaninoff's Prelude in C-sharp minor – that had me in tears on more than one occasion. The rapid-fire passages and dizzying chord progressions seemed to defy my abilities, and there were moments when I considered giving up entirely.But then I'd remember the sheer joy and sense of accomplishment I felt whenever I did manage to conquer a difficult section, and that would spur me on to keep practicing, keep pushing myself to improve.Thankfully, I had the unwavering support of my family, friends, and teachers, who constantly encouraged me and reminded me of how far I'd come. They helped me to see that true mastery of any skill – whether it's playing the piano, painting, writing, or anything else – requires immense dedication, perseverance, and a willingness to learn from one's mistakes.And so, I kept at it, hour after hour, day after day, year after year. I practiced scales and arpeggios until my fingers felt like they were going to fall off. I meticulously worked through each measure of every piece, slowly building up speed and dexterity. And whenever I hit a roadblock or felt like I'd reached my limit, I'd take a step back, breathe deeply, and remind myself of why I'd fallen in love with the piano in the first place.It wasn't about becoming a world-famous concert pianist or winning competitions (although those would have been nice). It was about the sheer joy of making music, of channeling my emotions into something beautiful and lasting. It was about the sense of pride and accomplishment that came from overcoming each new challenge, from pushing myself to new heights.And now, as I approach the end of my high school years and prepare to head off to college, I can look back with a sense of profound gratitude for the journey that the piano has taken me on. It's taught me invaluable lessons about hard work, perseverance, and the importance of never giving up on something that you're truly passionate about.More importantly, it's given me a lifelong love of music and a deep appreciation for the incredible artistry and dedication required to master a craft like piano performance. Whenever I sitdown at the keyboard and let my fingers glide across those smooth, ivory keys, I'm reminded of just how fortunate I am to have discovered this passion at such a young age.And while I may never achieve the level of virtuosity of a Lang Lang or a Martha Argerich, that's okay. Because for me, it's not about becoming the best pianist in the world – it's about becoming the best pianist that I can possibly be, about constantly striving to improve and grow, and about never losing sight of the sheer joy and beauty that music can bring into our lives.So, as I prepare to embark on this next chapter of my life, I know that the piano will always be a part of who I am. It's been my constant companion through the ups and downs of childhood and adolescence, a source of solace and inspiration during the good times and the bad. And I can't wait to see where this incredible journey will take me next.。
小学下册B卷英语第2单元期末试卷
小学下册英语第2单元期末试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.se invented ________ around 100 AD. The Civi2.The _____ (小猫) is very curious about everything.3.trial Revolution began in __________. (英国) The Indu4.Which animal is known as the king of the jungle?哪个动物被称为丛林之王？A. TigerB. LionC. BearD. ElephantB5.We have a _____ (派对) this weekend.6.There are many ______ (花) in the garden. They are very ______ (美丽).7.What is the name of the famous American singer known for her hit "I Will Always Love You"?A. Mariah CareyB. Whitney HoustonC. Celine DionD. Tina TurnerB8. A __________ (酸) tastes sour and can be found in vinegar.9.What do you call a house for birds?A. NestB. CageC. CoopD. AviaryA10.The squirrel has a bushy ______ (尾巴) for balance.11.What is the name of the ocean next to North America?A. Atlantic OceanB. Indian OceanC. Arctic OceanD. Pacific OceanD12.What is a baby sheep called?A. CalfB. KidC. LambD. FoalC13. A __________ is a small animal that loves to dig.14.The coach trains the _____ (球队) to win.15.This boy, ______ (这个男孩), is working on a science project.16.The ______ helps us learn about community leaders.17. A ______ is a negatively charged particle in an atom.18.We like to ___ (play/sing) songs.19.We visit the ______ (动物园) to see wild animals.20.I enjoy ______ (riding) horses.21.What do we use to write on a paper?A. BrushB. PencilC. SpoonD. ScissorsB Pencil22. A dolphin is a playful _______ that loves to swim and jump out of the water.23.I love to listen to stories from my grandparents about their ________ (年轻时代).24.The ______ (植物的生理特征) can be fascinating to study.25.He is wearing _____ (gloves/hats) because it's cold.26.I enjoy _____ with my friends. (playing)27.The _____ (植物生活方式) supports sustainable living choices.28. A ______ (生态恢复) project aims to revive natural habitats.29.What is the capital city of Norway?A. OsloB. BergenC. StavangerD. Tromsø30.The pelican has a big _______ (嘴巴).31.Which of these is a type of bird?A. SalmonB. SparrowC. SharkD. Dolphin32.My teacher told us to call her ______ in class. (我的老师告诉我们在课上称呼她为。
小学上册第四次英语第六单元真题试卷(有答案)
小学上册英语第六单元真题试卷(有答案)英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The __________ (历史的互动平台) foster dialogue.2.The eagle has sharp _________. (爪子)3. A __________ is a mountain formed by volcanic activity.4.What is the name of the famous explorer who discovered Australia?A. James CookB. Abel TasmanC. Ferdinand MagellanD. Christopher Columbus答案: A5.I want to learn how to ________ (编程).6. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which particles can be _____ over time.7.The __________ of a substance is how much space it takes up.8.Metals are typically ______ conductors of electricity.9.古代的________ (peoples) 通过语言和文化传播影响彼此。
10.I can ________ my toys.11.She enjoys ________ (种花).12.What is the name of the famous artist known for his "Guernica" painting?A. Pablo PicassoB. Salvador DalíC. Henri MatisseD. Vincent van Gogh答案: A13.My favorite movie is ________ because it is funny.14.My brother is a ______. He enjoys woodworking.15. A sound wave is a type of ______ wave.16.My aunt has a great sense of ____ (humor).17.__________ are found on the right side of the periodic table.18.The weather can change very ______ (快).19.The ______ (树木) in the forest provide shelter for many animals.20.What is the name of the event where people come together to celebrate a festival?A. GatheringB. PartyC. CeremonyD. Festival答案: D21.The _______ (海洋) is home to many species.22.The chemical symbol for nickel is ______.23.In a chemical reaction, substances change into __________ substances.24.My favorite ice cream is ______.25.Listen and match.听录音，连线。
高考英语教材复习选择性必修第4册UNIT1SCIENCEFICTION
Ⅰ．词块记单词 1．with _d_i_g_n_it_y_ 有尊严地；彬彬有礼 2．a big _s_a_la_r_y_ 高工资 3．_d_is_m_i_s_s_ Tony 解雇托尼，让托尼离开 4．on a daily or w__e_e_k_ly_ basis 每天或每周 5．c_h_a_i_rw__o_m_a_n_ of the student union 学生会女主席 6．become _s_u_p_er_i_o_r _ 变得更好 7．_fe_t_c_h_ something 去拿东西
UNIT 1 SCIENCE FICTION
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必备知识·自主检测 关键能力·重难探究 课堂效果·巩固训练 课时质量评价
基础练透——单句语法填空 ①The accused man was declared _to__b_e_ (be) guilty by the court． ②I was annoyed in that period and stopped practising, _d_e_c_la_r_in_g__ (declare) I had reached the ceiling of my singing career． ③It _i_s_d_e_c_la_r_e_d__ (declare) that there will be no school this afternoon． ④Germany declared war o_n_ France on 3 August 1914．
UNIT 1 SCIENCE FICTION
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必备知识·自主检测 关键能力·重难探究 课堂效果·巩固训练 课时质量评价
2．urge n．强烈的欲望；冲动 vt．催促；力劝；大力推荐 [素养佳句]Our teacher urges us to study hard with the College Entrance Examination drawing near． 随着高考的临近，我们的老师敦促我们努力学习。
小学上册D卷英语第1单元期末试卷(有答案)
小学上册英语第1单元期末试卷(有答案)英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The ______ (果汁) is refreshing.2.I have a red ________ for school.3.The _____ (house) is big.4.I built a Lego _________ (城市) with my friends.bining different chemicals can create _____.6.The polar bear lives in the ______.7.The ______ (种类) of plants is vast.8.The library has many _____ (books/magazines).9.We recognize ________ (hard work) in our team.10.I like to listen to ________ (流行音乐) during dinner.11.The __________ (历史的探索) reveals truths.12.The five senses can help us observe _____ properties.13.My cousin is very good at ____ (science).14.Have you seen a _____ (黑猩猩) at the zoo?15.The ______ is a symbol of peace.16.My favorite thing to do at night is ______.17.I dream of becoming a ______ (医生) one day. I want to help people and make them feel ______ (健康).18.What do we call the scientific study of life?A. BiologyB. ChemistryC. PhysicsD. Geology答案: A. Biology19.The _____ (teacher/student) is reading.20.What do you call the animal that is known for its ability to mimic human speech?A. ParrotB. CrowC. RavenD. Mockingbird答案: A21.What do we call the area of land that is covered by forests?A. Wooded areaB. TimberlandC. ForestD. All of the above答案:D. All of the above22.What is the color of an orange?A. GreenB. YellowC. OrangeD. Red答案:C23.The chemical symbol for strontium is _____.24.I have a teddy bear ________ (玩具名称) that I sleep with.25.The butterfly is ________ in the garden.26.My uncle is a __________ (艺术家).27.My friend, ______ (我的朋友), is a great storyteller.28.They are _____ (playing) chess.29.The ancient Egyptians believed in thousands of ________ (神明).30.The __________ (古代中国) had many inventions like paper and gunpowder.31.During summer vacation, I plan to __________ with my family. We might go to__________ or spend time at __________. I am excited about all the adventures we will have!32.Gandhi is known for leading India to ________ from British rule.33.My favorite fruit is ______ (banana).34. A __________ is formed through the accumulation of organic matter over time.35.My uncle brings me .36.My favorite teacher knows how to _______ (动词). 她教我们 _______ (名词).37.The fish is _____ around the tank. (swimming)38. A snake sheds its skin as it ________________ (成长).39.I enjoy painting. My favorite color to use is __________.40.The _______ of a plant helps it to grow straight.41. A substance that changes color in an acid or base is called an ______.42.The tree provides ______ (shade) on hot days.43.What do you call a young female elephant?A. CalfB. JuniorC. PupD. Kid答案: A44.The baby is _____ (crying/sleeping) in the crib.45.My favorite subject in school is _______ (科目) because it’s very _______ (形容词).46.The classroom is ______ (bright) and cheerful.47.They are eating ice ___. (cream)48. A _____ (章鱼) can squirt ink to escape danger.49. A wild boar has sharp ______ (牙齿).50.My brother loves to __________ (参加) school events.51.I got a new _____ (飞机) for my birthday.52.I like _______ (去购物) with my mom.53.The mountain is very ___ (high).54.I want to ________ (innovate) solutions.55.I think writing poetry is a beautiful way to express __________.56.When I visit the zoo, I always look forward to seeing this animal. I like to watch how it ______ and interacts with the other animals. Sometimes, the zookeepers give them ______ to play with, which is really fun to see.57.The Himalayas were formed by the collision of two ______ plates.58.What is the name of the famous sculpture by Michelangelo?A. The ThinkerB. DavidC. Venus de MiloD. The Kiss答案: B59.The __________ are a group of islands in the Caribbean. (加勒比群岛)60.The car is _____ fast. (going)61.The bear is a powerful animal, respected and feared in the wild ____.62.My pet fish swims in a _____.63.I have a ___ (dream) of being an astronaut.64.The _____ (牛仔裤) are comfortable.65.My mom is _____ (working/playing) at home.66.My friend is a ______. He enjoys inventing new things.67.My aunt loves __________ (探索新事物).68.The study of how rocks and minerals interact is called ______.69.I enjoy playing __________ (游戏名) with my __________ (玩具名).bustion requires fuel and ______.71.I see a _____ butterfly in the garden. (beautiful)72.The ________ is a joyful little friend to have.73.The main source of energy for the Earth is _____.74.I think it’s fun to ________ (爬山) with friends.75.The _______ of an object can be tested with a balance.76.The _______ (The American Civil War) was fought over the issues of slavery and states' rights.77.The ancient Egyptians practiced mummification to preserve ________ (尸体).78.My cousin is very __________ (理智).79.The __________ (历史的回归) reflects change.80.We are going to ___ a trip. (take)81.The chemical formula for sodium phosphate is ______.82.This ________ (玩具) is interactive and fun.83.The ____ lives in trees and loves to eat fruits.84.What is the main character in a story called?A. AntagonistB. ProtagonistC. NarratorD. Author答案:b85.The ______ (植物学家) studies plants.86.The __________ was a period of severe economic downturn in the 1930s. (大萧条)87.I take my ________ (玩具名称) on vacation with me.88. A _____ is a small body that orbits a planet.89.The country famous for its olive oil is ________ (希腊).90.We should _____ (nurture) young plants.91.The chemical symbol for beryllium is _____.92.I love celebrating cultural festivals, especially __________.93.The Himalayas were formed by the collision of two tectonic ______.94.My sister is having a birthday ____ (party) next week.95.The process of making soap involves a reaction called _______.96.The __________ (历史的影响深远) shapes futures.97.I feel excited when I go to ________.98.When I introduce myself, I say, "Hello, I'm ." (当我介绍自己时，我会说：“你好，我是。
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有关印刷的专业术语彩盒： retail box/color carton 礼盒：gift box说明书：manual/booklet 贴纸： label商标：brand 木盒：wood box卡牌：tag/card 海报：poster杂志：magazine1、纸质：paper stock /raw material书纸：WFUCwood free uncoated/Woodfree铜板：WFCwood free coated / Art paper /Gloss Artpaper/ C2S ---Coated two sides哑粉：Matte coated paper /Matte/ Matt单粉：SBS C1S双面白或者单粉：WBBWhite back board粉灰：CCNB /grey back 灰底/FBBfolding box board微软的称法牛皮纸：Craft paper 坑纸：Corrugated Paper Flute AA坑纸板:：pasteboard 双灰板：grey board再生纸：recycled循环 paper 合成纸：synthetic paper格拉辛底：glassine paper 胶底纸：adhesive label可移胶底纸：Removable label 非可移胶底纸：Permanentlabel彩纸：printed paper 卡纸：Paperboard,board , card board面纸：Top sheet 底纸：Liner sheet雪铜：Coated art paper再生纸：NR recycle paper2、印刷颜色 ink information/printing单黑：black ink only, 专色：PMS,special color四色：4 colors CMYK----- Cyan 青, Magenta 品红, Yellow 黄, black 黑3、尺寸 size /dimension :长：length 宽width 高 Height 深 Depth 厚度：thickness 展开尺寸：open size/flat size 成型尺寸：closesize/finished size内尺寸：inner size 外尺寸：outer size 压线：score line4、说明书装订和页数 page and bindery单张说明书:leaf let /leafManual booklet: 此一般为单黑说明书Brochure:小册子一般此彩色说明书页数：page count 页码：page numberNO.页 page 版panel；单张single sheet,切边 trim to size 对折 fold in half 3折 3 fold风琴折：concertina fold accordion fold骑马钉saddle stitch,staple 胶装perfect bound/bindingWire 钉 Wire-O binding YO圈锁线：scwing规格:specification 简称specs车中线：single sewing精装书：casehard bound book cloth book空白页：unprint page blank page 未切页：uncut pages 封面：Cover 内文：Text/content自封：self cover 信封：envelope前封面封一：front cover 后封面:back cover 封二：inside front cover 十字折：The cross breaks左右自反：work and tumble 天地翻：work and turn5表面处理: coating/finish光油gloss varnish, 哑油: matte varnish 水油aqueous, Water-base varnish 磨光:polish/calendering吸塑油:blister varnish. 过局部UV: spot UV 丝印: silk screen. 光胶:OPP,PPlaminating烫金:gold/golden hot stamp 烫银:silver hotstamp击凸:embossing embossed 覆膜：Matte Lamination模具：mould Plate版烫金版：foil gold 烫银版： foil silver6、后序加工裱纸：laminating 对裱：mounting啤切：die cut 粘贴：Glue Joint裁切：trim 切：cut /cutting驳盒：multi joints gluing自动扣底：automatic bottom auto-lock bottom扣底：lock bottom tuck top盖: Lid 底: Base 硬盖: Rigid Top7、外购件：丝带: ribbion塑料：plastic PVC PET PETG热收缩：shrink wrap CD套：CDwrapsleeve泡沫：foam 金属：metallic双面胶：double-side tape 自粘性的：self-adhesive真空包装：Vacume packing V形状：V-shape防水：water proof 色稿：color proof数码稿：digital proof8、运输散货：bulk 大货生产：mass production lot货柜：集装箱：container纸箱：carton 卡板：pallet护角：corner protect 包装：packing packaging最大：Maximum max 最小：MinimumMin净重：Net weight NW 毛重：Gross WeightGW体积：CBM 出厂价：Ex-work一般常用的:买主：buyer 卖主：vendor/suppier客户：client/customer兰图：blue draft 看附件：see attachedCTF----computer to firm计算机直接出菲林CTP---computer to plate计算机直接出版FTP---file transfer protocol文件传送协议FYI---for your information仅供参考Confirm return确定退回Notification of accepted quotation通知已被确认的报价单Purchasingmanager采购经理拼版：make up 校板纸：makeready sheet样板：sample 实地：solid。
International Journal of Knowledge Management.
Editorial Preface:Is Knowledge Management a Discipline?Murray E. Jennex, Editor-in-ChiefDavid Croasdell, Associate EditoriWelcome to the inaugural issue of the International Journal of Knowledge Man-agement. In this inaugural editorial we would like to outline the goals of the journal and pro-vide the basis for why this journal is needed. The goals for the journal are to support and grow the knowledge management (KM) com-munity and to publish high quality research. The papers in this issue reflect these goals. Contributions were received from several countries and while the four papers repre-sent only two countries, we actively seek submissions from the global KM community. The make-up of the editorial review board reflects this commitment, as we have mem-bers from 12 different countries represent-ing the continents of Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, and North America. This is also re-flected in the methodologies used in the four papers; two are qualitative and two are quan-titative. The journal will accept quality re-search without bias to methodology. The is-sue also includes a practitioner paper reflect-ing the journal’s commitment to building bridges between the academic and practitio-ner KM communities. Finally, the issue in-cludes a review of the KM Cluster at the Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS). This review is the first of several conference reviews and reflects the journal’s commitment to uniting the various KM communities that exist at these confer-ences.Why these goals? We believe that the members of the KM community want rec-ognition as a discipline. We are not just a sub-set of the information systems community, nor are we a subset of the organizational be-havior community. We are a fusion of many disciplines that many of us believe is a disci-pline in its own right. This is in contrast to Spiegler (2000), who suggests that KM is just a new name for an old idea. While the idea may be old, we believe we have emerged as a discipline based on new technologies, meth-odologies, and theories. To support this as-sertion we referr to Kuhn (1996), who lists several criteria that define a discipline:•Formation of specialized journals.•Foundation of professional societies (or specialized interest groups within societ-ies-SIGs).•Claim to a special place in academe (and academe’s curriculum).•An accepted body of knowledge for group members to build upon, eliminat-ing having to build their field anew with each paper.•Promulgation of scholarly articles in-tended for and “addressed only to pro-fessional colleagues, [those] whose knowledge of a shared paradigm can be assumed and who prove to be the onlyiiones able to read the papers addressed to them, i.e., a specialized ontology.”We believe KM meets these criteria to some degree. However, we do not meet them well, as discussed in the following paragraphs.Despite special issues in several main-stream academic journals, knowledge man-agement has lacked outlets dedicated to KM research. In the past few years three jour-nals have surfaced to address KM research exclusively: Knowledge Management Re-view, The Journal of Knowledge Manage-ment, and Knowledge Management Re-search and Practice. The International Journal of Knowledge Management ex-tends this list. We conclude we meet the first criteria.Several special interest groups and so-cieties have sprung up to address KM in both applied and theoretical settings. Exemplars of such groups include the Information and Knowledge Management Society, the Knowl-edge Board, the American Society for Infor-mation Science and Technology Special In-terest Group on Knowledge Management, SIGs within specific domains (e.g., SIGKDD within AIS, SIGKM within NIH, etc.), and communities of researchers grouped around major conferences. Additionally, professional certification of KM practitioners is available and claims 1,500 members (eKnowledgeCenter, 2004). The establish-ment and growth of these groups addresses the second criteria regarding professional societies; however, this community is frag-mented. As preparation for starting this jour-nal we attended several conferences that in-cluded KM. Attendance at these conferences and review of their proceedings clearly show KM research communities. Curiously though, there appears to be little shared awareness among these communities as evidenced by the relatively few papers referenced or built upon from other conferences. The journal seeks to unite these communities by raising awareness of these collective communities and their research and sharing knowledge management research and practices. The journal will do this by reviewing a confer-ence in each of the initial issues. As stated earlier, this issue reviews the KM Cluster at the HICSS conference. The KM Cluster has its roots in organizational memory (OM) and was chosen first because of its 12-year his-tory, and having HICSS held the second week of January makes it the first conference of the year. Additionally, the journal will seek out and publish extended versions of quality papers from these conferences, as well as quality submissions from all members of the KM research community. The first three pa-pers in this issue are from the KM Cluster. Finally, we will strive to make this research available to the KM community as quickly as possible and target a six to eight-week re-view cycle. To summarize, we meet the cri-teria of special interest groups but we need to do a better job of building the KM commu-nity.A quick Web search or perusal of col-lege catalogues yields a list of many univer-sities offering courses in KM. A cursory scan of dissertation abstracts over the last five years shows a number of works that focus on KM and related topics. The growth of KM courses and graduate theses legitimizes the claim that KM has found a place in academe, thus satisfying the third requirement. How-ever, we also recognize that there are no cer-tification programs or specialized degree pro-grams for KM; this may be a weakness in recognizing KM as a discipline.The last two criteria look at having a body of knowledge and ontology. Publishing high-quality research supports the establish-ment and growth of the KM body of knowl-edge and ontology. Building the body of knowledge and ontology needs to be a prior-ity for the KM community and is a goal of the journal. Why do we assert this need? We reviewed the citations from 132 KM relatediiipapers presented at HICSS from 1998 through 2004 to identify seminal works. HICSS papers were chosen for their avail-ability and widespread coverage of the KM field. The HICSS review presents the view-point that KM includes the topics of OM and organizational learning (OL). We accept this view and categorized the papers as KM, OM, or OL. The 132 papers yielded more than 3,000 citations, of which approximately 500 focused on these key areas.Table 1 presents the top 10 cited KM manuscripts from the 101 KM papers.“Cited” refers to the number of times the ci-tation is listed in the references; “years” re-flects the number of years the citation ap-peared in at least one paper. The most heavily cited work appears in 41 of 101 papers, while the second and third most citations appear in 38 and 29 papers respectively. There appears to be some consensus (41%, 38%, and 29%) for the top three citations being seminal works and defining terms such as “tacit” and “ex-plicit” knowledge, but there is little consen-sus on other items of interest. Also, it should be noted that a couple of citations are on the path to joining the seminal group and did not make the top three only because they have not been available long enough. This table indicates a weak body of knowledge and little common ontology.Table 2 presents the top 10 OM manu-scripts cited in the 32 OM papers. The table headings are the same as in Table 1. Note that the top 2 citations appear in 22 and 16 papers respectively while the remaining eight citations are in nine or fewer papers and are all conference proceedings, mostly from HICSS. There is agreement that two papers (69% and 50%) are OM seminal works.Table 3 presents the top 10 OL manu-scripts cited in the 31 OL papers. The top four citations appear in 19, 19, 18, and 18 papers respectively. There is reasonable con-sensus (61%-58%) that these four papers are the OL seminal works.The citation counts show that there are only a few models and theories and little com-mon ontology. However, the body of litera-ture is growing rapidly. More than 500 KM, OM, and OL citations were identified. Many of the cited manuscripts have been published since 2001 and many were refereed confer-ence proceedings. Converting these citations into journal articles takes time, but papers originally appearing at HICSS (and other con-Table 1: Top KM Citationsivferences) are showing up in peer-reviewedjournals on a regular basis. While the exist-ence of seminal works and accepted theo-ries exist, we conclude that we need to do more to establish our body of knowledge and ontology. This leads to the journal’s goal of publishing high-quality research.Table 2: Top OM CitationsTable 3: Top OL CitationsThe question was asked, is KM a disci-pline? It is concluded that we are a disci-pline, but just barely and very young. The International Journal of Knowledge Man-agement is dedicated to ensuring KM grows as a discipline and will support this by helping to build the KM research community, body of knowledge, and ontology.REFERENCES EknowledgeCenter. (2004). KM profes-sional certification. Retrieved June 2, 2004: http://www.eknowledge /Kuhn, T.S. (1996). The Structure of Sci-entific Revolutions (third edition). Uni-versity of Chicago Press.Spiegler, I. (2000). Knowledge manage-ment: A new idea or a recycled concept. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 3.ivMurray E. Jennex is an assistant professor at San Diego State University and president of the Foundation for Knowledge Management (LLC). Dr. Jennex specializes in knowledge management, system analysis & design, IS security, and organizational effectiveness; and is editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Knowledge Management. He has managed projects in applied engineering and business and information systems development and implementation. His industrial and consulting experience includes nuclear generation, electrical utilities, communications, health services, and governmental agencies. Dr. Jennex is the author of numerous publications on knowledge management, end user computing, international information systems, organizational memory systems, and software outsourcing. He holds a BA in chemistry and physics from William Jewell College, an MBA and MS in software engineering from the National University, and an MS in telecommunications management and a PhD in information systems from Claremont Graduate University. Dr. Jennex is also a registered professional mechanical engineer in the state of California. David T. Croasdell is an assistant professor of management information systems in the Department of Accounting and Information Systems at the University of Nevada. He received his PhD in information and operations management from Texas A&M University. He has also earned an MS in business computing science from Texas A&M University and a BS in zoology from the University of Idaho. Dr. Croasdell’s primary areas of research are organizational memory, knowledge management, and inquiring organizations. He serve’s as the cluster chair for knowledge management, organizational memory and organizational learning at the Hawaii International Conference on Systems Science.。
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Working Paper No. TwoKnowledge Base Management Systems and The Knowledge Warehouse: A "Strawman"ByJoseph M. Firestone, Ph.D.Executive Information Systems, Inc.eisai@Revised March 16, 2000Prepared for First KMCI/AIIMKM ANSI/ISO Standards Committee MeetingJanuary 29, 1999©1999-2000 Executive Information Systems, Inc. ArrayIntroductionThe concepts of Knowledge Base Management System (KBMS) and the Knowledge Warehouse (KW) are analogues of Database Management System(DBMS) and Data Warehouse. To arrive at a standard practice on the KBMS, anda standard definition of the Knowledge Warehouse, it's reasonable to begin with"straw man" definitions of both these concepts, next develop a general concept ofwhat a standard practice might encompass, and then subject these products to vigorous criticism and analysis by the AKMSC. To produce this straw man is the purpose of this paper. I will proceed by considering some basic distinctions among data, information and knowledge, then discuss DBMSs, the DW, DW evolution, and Data Warehousing as a process, and then move from there to develop the analogous concepts in the knowledge and knowledge management sphere.What are the Differences among Data, Information, and Knowledge?To begin with, organizational data, information, and knowledge, all emerge from the social process of an organization, and are not private. In defining them, we are not trying to formulate definitions that will elucidate the nature of personal data, information, or knowledge. Instead, to use a word that used to be more popular in discourse than it is at present, we are trying to specify inter-subjective constructs and to provide metrics for them.A datum is the value of an observable, measurable or calculable attribute. Data is more than one such attribute value. Is a datum (or is data) information? Not in itself; but information is provided by a datum, or by data, because data is always specified in some conceptual context. At a minimum, the context must include the class to which the attribute belongs, the object that is a member of that class, some ideas about object operations or behavior, and relationships to other objects and classes.Data alone and in the abstract therefore, does not provide information. Rather, information, in general terms, is data plus conceptual commitments and interpretations. Information is data extracted, filtered or formatted in some way (but keep in mind that data is always extracted filtered, or formatted in some way). Knowledge is a subset of information. But it is a subset that has been extracted, filtered, or formatted in a very special way. More specifically, the information we call knowledge is information that has been subjected to, and passed tests of validation. Common sense knowledge is information that has been validated by common sense experience. Scientific knowledge is information (hypotheses and theories) validated by the rules and tests applied to it by some scientific community.More formally, the hierarchical network of the organization’s validated rules is the knowledge base of the organization or enterprise. [1] Each rule in the network relates antecedent attribute values to consequent attribute values, concepts, or rule sequences. The attributes involved belong to a number of concepts that represent the components of the model. Declarative Rule networks are those whose rules fire in parallel to determine an outcome. Procedural Rule networks are those whose rules fire in sequence. The knowledge base is composed of both declarative and procedural rule networks.The organization's knowledge base enables it to explain, anticipate, and predict2events and interaction patterns in the organization and in its environment. The knowledge base rule network of the organization contains: its set of remembered data; its validated propositions and models (along with metadata related to their testing); its refuted propositions and models (along with metadata related to their refutation); its metamodels; and (if the system produces such an artifact) the software it uses for manipulating these.Organizational level knowledge, in terms of this framework, is information validated by the rules and tests of the organization seeking knowledge. The quality of its knowledge then, will be largely dependent on the tendency of its validation rules and tests to produce knowledge that improves organizational performance; or in Inmon's [2, Pp. 5-11] terms: business operations, business intelligence, and business management (the organization’s version of objective knowledge). [3] From the viewpoint of the definition given of organizational knowledge, what is an organization doing when it validates information to produce knowledge? It seems reasonable to propose that the validation process is an essential aspect of the broader organizational learning process, and that validation is a form of learning. So, though knowledge is a product and not a process derived from learning, knowledge validation (validation of information to admit it into the knowledge base) is certainly closely tied to learning, and depending on the definition of organizational learning, may be viewed as derived from it.DBMS and Related DefinitionsIn moving from data to DBMSs, we move from a generalized definition of data to one defined in the context of computer systems. In this context, we define a data item as "the smallest unit of named data," consisting "of any number of bits or bytes." Sometimes a data item is "referred to as a field or data element." [4, P. 12] A record is an ordered collection of named data items. Noting these definitions of data item and record, here are some common definitions of database and DBMS. According to O'Neill, a database is: "The collection of records kept for a common purpose . . . " [5, P. 1] And a DBMS "is a program product for keeping computerized records about an enterprise." [5, P. 1]According to C. J. Date:"a database is: a repository for stored data. In general it is both integrated and shared. By 'integrated' we mean that the database may be thought of as a unification of several otherwise distinct data files, with any redundancy among those files partially or wholly eliminated. . . By 'shared' we mean that individual pieces of data in the database may be shared among several different users." [6, P. 4]According to Rumbaugh, Blaha, Premerlani, Eddy, and Lorensen: "A Data Base Management System (DBMS) is a computer program for managing a permanent,3self-descriptive repository of data." [7, P. 366]Combining various aspects of these definitions, I'll define a database as a self-descriptive, permanent, repository storing a collection of records kept for a common purpose. And a DBMS as a computer program for managing this repository. A specific DBMS programming application, is produced by using a DBMS-template to create, maintain, and enhance it. Sometimes the template software (such as Oracle, DB2, Sybase, etc.) is called a Database Management System in common usage. But we should not lose sight of the fact that the program that manages a database in any specific situation is the concrete product of using a particular template or tool for producing an actual database management application.The Data Warehouse and Data Warehousing: Definitions and EvolutionIn the beginning, there were only "islands of information: " operational data stores, legacy systems needing enterprise-wide integration, and mission-specific Decision Support Systems. Then "along came Bill" (Inmon) and his concept of the Data Warehouse (DW) (seen as the solution to the problems of information integration and redundancy) -- the embodiment of enterprise-wide DSS for the ‘90s.Inmon defined the DW as "an subject-orientedn integrated,n time-variantn non-volatilen collection of data in support of management’s decision making process." [8, P. 1]This is the classic definition of the Data Warehouse. According to it, the DW is a type of database managed by a DBMS. Indeed, in its present form the DW is a database that uses a relational DBMS. Inmon's definition is now undergoing change as the DW field evolves. Figure One depicts where DW began.Data Marts and Data Mining were not part of the vision of Figure One. At the beginning, there was only the DW. But the vision was too sweeping. DW’s were too costly, often impolitic, took too long to implement, and their architecture turned out to be too simple to support growing customer requirements. So, evolution in data warehousing systems began with the introduction of:4Figure One -- Where Data Warehousing Begann Data Martsn Dynamic Data Staging areasn Operational Data Storesn Web and OLAP Clients,in response to specific customer requirements.A variety of application servers were or are also being added to the ETML, Legacy, and Database Servers in DW systems in order to fill a variety of other user needs. Currently, intelligent agent technology is being integrated into DW systems, though we do not yet see Agency Application Servers and a generalized use of agents. The most powerful current trend is probably introduction of "second generation" metadata exchange architectures based on a commitment to DCOM or CORBA, and Object Technology for improving metadata managers and integration of ETML, other application servers and DSS data stores. Figure Two depicts where DW is now.5Figure Two -- Data Warehousing Now Legend for Figures Two and ThreeNote the great increase in functionality and complexity in the above system, and the correspondingly greater need for integrative mechanisms. In particular, the greater and increasing role of application servers in general, and Business Process Engines (BPE) in particular, is manifest in data warehousing. Business Process Engines are application servers that maintain state in memory rather than in persistent storage. [9, P. 1] ROLAP and KDD servers are also BPEs. As reflected in Figure Two, metadata is now heavily emphasized as an integrative mechanism.With these changes have come other definitions of the Data Warehouse and evolving conceptions of Data Warehousing These have been offered with no real attempt to confront other, different definitions or conceptions, or to explore the reasons for disagreements in definitions, and the conceptual commitments or gaps that these definitions imply. Let's look at some newer definitions, and then discuss developments in conceptions of Data Warehousing.Newer DW DefinitionsInmon's classic definition of the DW, taken alone, does not distinguish a data warehouse from a data mart, or enterprise wide data warehouses from process-oriented data warehouses. That is, it does not distinguish subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, non-volatile data stores of differing scope.Inmon and his collaborators define a data mart as "a subset of a data warehouse that has been customized to fit the needs of a department." [2, P. 70] They also emphasize that "a data mart is a subset of a data warehouse, containing a small amount of detailed data and a generous portion of summarized data." There is no agreement on this, as there is a strong counter position that atomic data marts are the foundation of the data warehouse. [10, Pp. 346-348]The following types of DSS data stores all fit the characterization "subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, non-volatile collection of data in support of management's decision making process." They represent different concepts, but together they should provide a framework for reasoning about the issue of definition.n A galactic data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, non-volatile collection of data in support of management's decision making process about any and all enterprise business processes and departments, and about the enterprise taken as a whole.n A business process-oriented data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, non-volatile collection of data in support of management's decision making process about any and all business processes and their interactions with one another and the external world.7n A department-oriented data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, non-volatile collection of data in support of management's decision making process about any and all departments, and their interactions with one another and with the external world.n A business process data mart is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, non-volatile collection of data in support of management's decision making process focused on a single business process.n A departmental data mart is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, non-volatile collection of data in support of management's decision making process focused on a single department.This framework provides three types of data warehouses and two types of data marts. I think businesses are mostly interested in business process data warehouses and data marts. And that the initial interest in Galactic Data Warehouses has faded, while a focus on departmental data warehouses and data marts is less desirable because it is not consistent with the widely endorsed business process orientation toward increasing productivity. Other recent definitions of data warehouse are focusing on the idea that a simple part-whole relationship exists between these categories and that the union of data marts is the data warehouse.The union of departmental data marts, however, is not a data warehouse, because this union doesn't necessarily provide management decision support for cross-departmental business processes, or for departmental interactions among themselves and with the external world. Still a departmental data mart is a subset of a galactic data warehouse or a department-oriented data warehouse as defined above.The union of business process data marts is also not a data warehouse, as Ralph Kimball and his collaborators suggest, [10, Pp. 19, 200-203, 266-271] because this union doesn't necessarily provide management decision support for departments, or for departmental interactions among themselves and with the external world. Still a business process data mart is a subset of a galactic data warehouse or a business process-oriented data warehouse as defined above.The above definitions of the data warehouse don't preclude the possibility that the data warehouse could be distributed. While insisting that the data warehouse is a unified, integrated logical entity, at the physical level the possibility is there that the data warehouse could be distributed.Changes in Data WarehousingData Warehousing used to focus on gathering data from legacy sources of various kinds, putting it through the ETML process, loading it into the data warehouse, and providing reporting tools and report templates to access it conveniently. Given the8changes in DW system complexity, Data Warehousing is now, increasingly, a problem of integrating a variety of distributed warehouse data stores with various specialized application servers and front end access devices that need warehouse data. The Data Warehousing System, which began as a low volatility system, is now a system that may integrate DSS, batch and OLTP processing, and that therefore may incorporate considerable volatility.The current state of Data Warehousing raises the following issues. How can increasingly complex data warehousing systems:n achieve dynamic integration?n comprehensively integrate and support knowledge production?n store knowledge for high capability decision support?n efficiently deliver tactical decision support using volatile data stores?n integrate ERP systems?n integrate increasingly varied business process engines?To successfully resolve these issues, data warehousing systems need an integrative component with the capabilities of the Artificial Knowledge Manager AKM) [11], so that future Data Warehousing Systems will look like Figure Three.Figure Three -- The Future of Data WarehousingArtificial Knowledge Bases (AKBs), Knowledge Base Management Systems (KBMS), and Knowledge Warehouses (KW)9With this account of Data Warehousing as background let's discuss AKBs, KBMSs, and KWs. Previously we stated that the knowledge base of an organization contains: its set of remembered data; its validated propositions and models (along with metadata related to their testing); its refuted propositions and models (along with metadata related to their refutation); its metamodels; and (if the system produces such an artifact) the software it uses for manipulating these. The organization's knowledge base is an abstract phenomenon. And it is one that emerges from the interaction of the various agents comprising the organization. Measures of an organization's knowledge base may be found in its cultural artifacts [12], including its linguistic products, its electronic artifacts, and its artistic expressions, if any.One type of cultural artifact of an organization is its Artificial Knowledge Base (AKB). An AKB is the portion of an organization's knowledge base expressed in the persistent storage and non-persistent memory of its computers. The AKB, like a database, is self-descriptive, is ultimately composed of bits and bytes, is permanent in the sense that it is an on-going system, is located both in specific in-memory locations and in specific persistent storage location, and is kept to fulfill an organization's purposes. Unlike a database which stores records, however, an AKB stores a network of objects and components, and these encapsulate data and methods (validated and unvalidated procedural or declarative rules that use validated and unvalidated data). So the AKB stores data and information as well as knowledge.A Knowledge Base Management System (KBMS) is a computer application for managing (creating, enhancing, and maintaining) the AKB, just as a DBMS is a computer application for managing a database. But what does such a computer program do? To answer this question, return to Figure Three.Figure Three is not simply a Data Warehousing System. It is an Enterprise Artificial Knowledge Management System (AKMS) as defined in Working Paper No. One. [11] It is also a KBMS, because it can produce and manage (through the AKM, its database management, application server, Knowledge Discovery in Databases/Data Mining application server, and communications and connectivity software) not only data and information, but also the network of objects and components constituting an AKB. Thus, the KDD/Data Mining Server is a component for supporting production of validated information (or knowledge). And the persistent data stores in Figure Three are not simply data stores, but taken together, including their OODBMS component, they are knowledge stores. They can store objects, and methods, and rules, and validation information, as well as data. And that makes Figure Three a Knowledge Warehousing System, and not just a Data Warehousing System.In a nutshell, the changes summarized above, indicate that data warehousing systems are about to evolve into AKMSs, or equivalently, Knowledge Base Management Systems, or Knowledge Warehousing Systems, and that10convergence between data warehousing, DSS, and KM is about to occur. There is no separate Knowledge Base Management System. The KBMS is both the AKMS and the Knowledge Warehousing System. Take your pick on the name.What of the Knowledge Warehouse? Like the DW, it may be viewed as subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, and supportive of management's decision making processes. But unlike the DW, it is a combination of volatile and non-volatile objects and components, and, of course, it stores not only data, but also information and knowledge.The KW is not co-extensive with the AKMS. It is also not a physical subsystem of the AKMS, as the data warehouse is of the DSS it supports, to which one can easily point. The KW is physically resident both in-memory and in persistent distributed data stores. Abstractly, however, the KW is the AKB itself. There is no distinction between the AKB and the KW, as there is between an enterprise wide federated database, and its data warehouse component.The AKMS is an On-line Complex Processing (OLCP) System. It is not merely a DSS system, like today’s data warehousing system. Nor is it an OLTP system, like today’s ERP systems. The AKMS, given present technology, is a distributed processing system, or as I have called it elsewhere a Distributed Knowledge Management System (DKMS). [13] Since the KBMS is the AKMS, it follows that the standard the AKMSC is developing for the AKMS, is also the KBMS standard, and any software tools developed on the basis of the standard will be KBMS tools as well as AKMS tools.On the subject of tools, there are no analogues to DBMS templates available for developing AKMSs. Such tools would need to provide templates for creating persistent data stores, for in-memory object models, for broad connectivity of the AKM to applications, databases, client modules, and communications buses. Current tools come close to having that broad range of capability, and it is possible to constitute a "best-of-breed" suite for constructing AKMSs. But I don't know of a single vendor that provides a tool suite in all of these areas.A Standard Recommended Practice for the KBMSIf the KBMS and the AKMS are one and the same, and the KW and the AKB are also equivalent, it follows that the standard recommended practice for the KBMS is the same as the standard recommended practice for the AKMS. To develop such a recommendation, we first need to define the AKMS standard in much greater detail. To do this we need to implement the AKMSC "straw man" program outlined in Working Paper No. One. Here again is the list of tasks in the program.1. Specify AKMS Use Case Model and Relate to NKMS Processes andActivities2. Specify the Artificial Knowledge Manager (AKM) Logical Component113. Specify Types of Client Application Components.4. Specify Types of Application Servers5. Specify Communication Buses including Object Request Brokers(ORBs)6. Specify Types of Data Stores7. Specify AKMS Architectural Model8. Specify AKMS Model9. Specify Artificial Knowledge Manager Standard10. S pecify Artificial Knowledge Base/Knowledge Warehouse Standard Once the AKMS standard is developed, we can proceed to develop the standard recommended practice for implementing an AKMS. In the mean time, fields likely to contribute to the standard can be studied. The two main ones are Object-Oriented Software Engineering (OOSE) and Data Warehousing. Both fields are in ferment right now, and practitioners and vendors alike are offering methodologies for their Communities of Practice (CoP). In OOSE, methodologies utilizing the Unified Modeling Language (UML), aimed at rapid application development of distributed object applications are now beginning to appear. In data warehousing, the simplistic methodologies of the early days of two tier data warehousing are giving way to incremental, iterative methodologies for developing distributed data warehouses over time. The standard recommended practice for the AKMS may perhaps be developed as a synthesis of these two developing CoPs.References[1] Compare Edward Swanstrom, "What is Knowledge Management?" Discussion Rough Draft of a Chapter undergoing editing by John Wiley & sons, available at /introkm.html.[2] See W. H. Inmon, Claudia Imhoff, and Ryan Sousa, Corporate Information Factory (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1998).[3] I read Gene Bellinger’s views on data, information, knowledge, and wisdom at /~crbnblu/musings/kmgmt/kmgmt.htm, before writing my own differing account of the previous concepts. His views are certainly worth keeping in mind when considering mine[4] James Martin, Computer Data-base Organization (Englewood, Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977)[5] Patrick O'Neill, Database: Principles, Programming, Performance (San12Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 1994).[6] C. J. Date, An Introduction to Database Systems, Vol. I (Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley, 1981).[7] James Rumbaugh, Michael Blaha, William Premerlani, Frederick Eddy, andWilliam Lorensen, Object-Oriented Modeling and Design (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prenctice-Hall, 1991).[8] W. H. Inmon, "What is a Data Warehouse?" Prism Tech Topic, Vol. 1, No. 1,1995[9] John Rymer, "Business Process Engines, A New Category of Server Software,Will Burst the Barriers in Distributed Application Performance Engines,"Emeryville, CA, Upstream Consulting White Paper, April 7, 1998, at /products/wp_rymer.htm.[10] Ralph Kimball, Laura Reeves, Margy Ross, and Warren Thornthwaite, TheData Warehouse Life Cycle Toolkit (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998).[11] Joseph M. Firestone, "The Artificial Knowledge Manager Standard: A"Strawman"" Working Paper No. One, Gaithersburg, MD: Knowledge Management Consortium, January 25, 1999.[12] See Joseph M. Firestone, "Distributed Knowledge Management Systems andEnterprise Knowledge Management Modeling," at /White_Papers.htm.[13] The AKMS concept developed here is largely based on the DKMS concept Iintroduced in "Object-Oriented Data Warehousing," available at /White_Papers.htm. Other papers developing various aspects of the DKMS are: Joseph M. Firestone, "Distributed Knowledge Management Systems: The Next Wave in DSS," Joseph M.Firestone,"Architectural Evolution in Data Warehousing," Joseph M. Firestone, "Knowledge Management Metrics Development: A Technical Approach," Joseph M. Firestone, "DKMS Brief No. Four: Business Process Engines in Distributed Knowledge Management Systems," all are available at /White_Papers.htm, as are additional papers about the DKMS.BiographyJoseph M. Firestone, Ph.D. is an Information Technology consultant working in the areas of Decision Support (especially Enterprise Knowledge Portals, Data Warehouses/Data Marts, and Data Mining), and Knowledge Management. He is consulting in the areas of developing Enterprise Information/Knowledge Portal Products, and is the author of "Approaching Enterprise Information Portals," a comprehensive,13full-length industry report on this rapidly emerging field. In addition, he formulated and is promoting the concept of Distributed Knowledge Management Systems (DKMS) as an organizing framework for software applications supporting Natural Knowledge Management Systems. Dr. Firestone is Chief Scientist of Executive Information Systems, Inc. (EIS), and one of the founding members of the Knowledge Management Consortium, International. A sampling of his writings may be found at the EIS web site at , a site Dr. Firestone developed. The web site is one of the more popular sites in data warehousing and knowledge management, and has now attained a run rate of more than 70,000 visits per year.14。