Chapter 9 Language and Society 语言和社会：社会语言学

The Relationship between Language and Society语言和社会的关系

The Relationship between Language and SocietyLanguage is not just the words said by people every day, it is both a scientific system and a social activity. It is the major bond of people’s communication in society.Although 2 people from the same place, their languages aren’t the same. One’s language reflects one’s social statues and his or her speech community. A speech community is a group of people who share a set of norms, rules and expectation regarding the use of language. Investigating language from this perspective is known as sociolinguistics. It deals with the inter relationship between language and society. Language can be regarded as a social activity. The internal authority refers to the acquisition of a language or dialect by an individual when mixed with his fellow speakers of the same speech community. External authority means that society, through language teachers, institutions, mass media, textbooks and dictionaries, imparts the knowledge of language to learners at schools or in controlled environment.Language as a social activity has its own planning. Language planning refers to the systematic attempt to solve communication problems by studying the various language or dialects people use in the same one community and by developing a realistic policy concerning the proper selection and appropriate use of these languages and varieties. A standers language is usually a prestige dialect/language widely accepted. A national language is the language to be used nationwide in a newlyliberated country or a multinational one. An official language, similar to a standard or national language, is used in formal, official situations.As a major bond of people’s communication, language is closely connected with society. Many factors lead to the differences in language. Even though from the same social class, people’s language also have their own characters for the differences in ages and sex. For example, in some cultures, there are much more marked differences between male and female speech. Female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than male speakers with the same general social background. That is, forms such as I done it, it growed and he ain’t can be found more often in the speech of males, and I did it, it grew and he isn’t in the speech of females. The different ethnic backgrounds also cause the variation of language. When a group of people have low social statues, their language may be regarded as the bad language. For example, when black people use the double negative constructions knowing nothing , they are often criticized.Differences in society and location may form one’s language characters. At the same time , the situation of using the language also cause the variation of language. Different situation requires us use different writing style and forms different register, such as the words used only for a special group of people, which known as jargon. All dialects and registers are regarded, or ought to be deemed, as grammatically welled-formed by their speech communities, i.e. each community has its own sub-grammar. But a particular variety or language sometimes enjoys an established reputation in society. The relative reputation of a variety of speech depends upon the social and economic status of professions and regions that use it.Code-switching means that a speaker does not have to follow a certain variety or dialect all the time but that he can turn from the standard language to the sub-standard one, from one dialect to another, from one accent to another, from formality to informality, from politeness to impoliteness, even from one language to another in a bilingual or multilingual community.As a member in society, it is important for us to know situation of using a language. When we contact with others, we must know clearly our role, such as father, son, husband or boss, only in this way , can we perform well in our work and daily life.。

Chapter9LanguageandSociety语言和社会：社会语言学

Chapter9LanguageandSociety语言和社会：社会语言学Chapter 9 Language and Society①Questions for discussion:1. How are culture and language related to each other?2. How do different social factors, like age and gender, affect language use?3. How do people talk differently in different situations?4. What are the other varieties of language besides regional dialects?5. Can you imagine two standard languages used in one nation?9.1 Sociolinguistics9.1.1 Definition(p160) ★Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the the social structures in which the users of language live.Metaphorically, language is regarded as a mirror of society, through which we can understand social activities of a certain society better.Functionally, society provides language with a suitable context of use, in which we can enjoy aspects fo language vividly and truthfully.9.1.2 Two Fundamental Concepts★Speech community: a group of people who form a community (e.g. a village, a region, a nation) and share the same lanugage or a particular variety of a language. Speech variety (language variety): any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker (e.g. idiolect) or a group of speakers (dialect, sociolect).9.1.3 Two approaches/perspectives(p160)◆Micro-sociolinguistics (sociolinguistic study of language): the study of potential social factors for a description and explanation of some linguistic variations, e.g.regional dialects, social dialects, Pidgin and Creole.Macro-sociolinguistics (sociolinguistic study of society): the study of language use to know more about a given society or community, e.g. bilingualism, language planning, language standardization, etc.Questions for discussion:1. What disciplines/studies have close relevance to the study of sociolinguistics?2. Can feel the differences between micro- and macro- sociolinguistics?9.2 Language Variation —Sociolinguistic Study of Language①本章内容拆自教材第七章，并融入了很多其他语言学教材的相关内容。

普通语言学基础-Language-and-Society

or even determine
social structure
02
Third Stance
the influence between language and society
is bi-directional
03
8.1.2 Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics
“ The linguistic branch that studies the relationship between language and society is called sociolinguistics.
8.2 Variable, Variant and Variation
Example
singing (ŋ) [ŋ]&[n] (ŋ):[ŋ]or[n]
singin
8.3 Regional Dialect and Its Semantic Extension
Regional Dialect and Its Semantic Extension
social dialects
genderlect
agelectect
temporal dialect
THANKS
”
Example 1
8.1.2
(Ray, a student, comes home after school) Ray: Hi, mum. Mum: Hi, you're late. Ray: Yeah, that bastard Sootbucker kept us in again. Mum: Nana's here. Ray: Oh sorry. Where is she?

语言学教学大纲

《语言学》课程教学大纲课程名称：语言学英文名称：Linguistics课程类型：专业基础课程总学时：36考核方式：考试成绩评定：平时测验+课堂表现+作业+出勤：40%，期末考试：60%授课对象：英语专业先修课程：基础英语教材：《新编简明英语语言学教程》，戴炜栋编著，上海外语教育出版社，2002年。

参考书：《现代语言学》，何兆雄编著，外语教学与研究出版社，1999年。

《语言学教程》，胡壮麟编著，北京大学出版社，1991年。

一、课程目的和任务该课程是英语专业（本科）的一门专业必修课。

开设在三年级下学期。

本课程向学生介绍语言学领域的重要研究成果，包括语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学的基本理论以及语言与文化、社会、思维等的关系。

通过本课程的学习，使学生掌握英语语言学的基本理论和基础知识，增强学生对语言的本质特征和语言学习过程的主要特点的了解，促进学生语言能力和文化素养的提高，提高学生学习和运用英语的效率。

二、教学内容基本要求、重点和难点【基本要求】1．正确认识课程的性质、任务及其研究对象。

基本把握课程的体系与结构。

了解英语语言的起源、发展及其变化过程，进一步熟悉与理解英语语言的有关现象与概念。

2．对语言与社会、语言与文化和语言与外语教学等方面之间的关系有一定的了解，将所学的语言学基础知识用于指导第二语言的学习，提高语言理论素养，特别是提高英语的正确运用能力和得体的交际能力。

【重点、难点】1．教学重点：音位学，语用学，社会语言学，语言学与外语教学2．教学难点：句法学，语义学，心理语言学第一章绪论【目的要求】1．掌握语言学的概念、语言的概念及其甄别性特征。

2．熟悉语言学研究中的几对基本概念。

3．了解语言学研究的各个语言层面以及语言学的各个分支。

【重点、难点】1．教学重点：语言学的概念、语言的概念及其甄别性特征。

2．教学难点：语言学研究中的几对基本概念。

【教学方法与教学手段】讲授式、讨论式【教学时数】2学时【思考与练习】1﹒How do you interpret the definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?2﹒What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?3﹒What characteristics of language should be included in a good , comprehensive definition of language?4﹒What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?第二章音系学【目的要求】1．通过语音学部分的学习，了解各种发音器官及其作用，英语的元音和辅音的发音方式和特点，分清宽式标音法和窄式标音法的区别。

语言学 Language and Society(课堂PPT)

Temporal dialect: the variety of language associated with a particular period of time.
Old English; Middle English; Modern English [diachronic/historical]
指形成一个社团，小到一个家庭大到一个国家，并有一种共同的言语或言语变体的一群人。
9
Language, dialΒιβλιοθήκη cts, and varieties
Language: writing system; may include several dialects; often politically defined
Speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of
a language 方言是一种语言的变体。
Chinese vs. Cantonese
10
dialect
Regional dialect vs. temporal dialect
地域方言
A sociolinguistic study of society (Sociology of language)
从语言变体和语言演变的事实，来解释相关的社会现象及其演变和发展的过程。
6
Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies
Macro sociolinguistics （a bird’s-eye view）研究国家或地区的语言状况及其与社会发展的相互关系（双语制或多语制社团中的语言选择、语言规划、语言态度等方面的研究）
Non-standard dialect

语言学教程

语言学教程本《教程》自1988年出版以来，受到广大教师和学生的广泛欢迎，赢得了广泛的赞誉，为我国语言学事业做出巨大的贡献。

但是，近10多年来，语言学的发展又取得了长足的进展，新的成果急需补充。

有鉴于此，主编胡壮麟先生及一批中青年语言学家对教材做了修订。

修订版听取了在第一线使用本书的老师们的意见，对有些意义不大的内容作了删除或删节，对十余年来语言学领域中的新进展作了充分反映。

本《教程》自1988年出版以来，受到广大教师和学生的广泛欢迎，赢得了广泛的赞誉，为我国语言学事业做出了巨大的贡献。

但是，近10多年来，语言学的发展又取得了长足的进展，新的成果急需补充。

有鉴于此，主编胡壮麟先生及一批中青年语言学家对教材做了修订。

修订版听取了在第一线使用本书的老师们的意见，对有些意义不大的内容作了删除或删节，对十余年来语言学领域中的新进展作了充分反映。

在注重理论的深透性的同时，也增加了语言的浅近性和趣味性。

修订版对问题和练习做了调整和补充。

并附了答案。

另外，为了适应不同程序的读者的需要，本《教程》的编者将出版一本语言学高级教程，将语言学中难度较大、理论性较强的内容作专门的讨论，以供研究生教学使用。

高级教程将在近期内推出，敬请广大读者关注。

编写本书的指导原则是：①以英语专业高年级学生为主要对象，也可供英英语专业的研究生使用。

②用英语编写，尽可能选用英语例句。

③在内容上，既要传授基本知识，也要反映语言学中的最新发展。

④在观点上，不拘泥于一派之说。

⑤讲授本书内容时可详可简，授课教师可根据自己学校的教学方案和学生程度进行调整。

修订版《语言学教程》'Linguistics.A Course Book' second edition主要内容：Chatpter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsChapter 3 LexiconChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 MeaningChapter 6 Language Processing in MindChapter 7 Language,Culture and SocietyChapter 8 Language in UseChapter 9 Language and LiteratureChapter 10language and ComputerChapter 11Linguistics and Foreign Language TeachingChapter 12Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics修订版<<语言学教程>>分为12个章节，它们分别是：第一章语言学导论第二章语音第三章词汇第四章句法第五章意义第六章语言的心理过程第七章语言，文化和社会第八章语言的使用第九章语言与文学第十章语言和计算机第十一章语言学和外语第十二章现代语言学理论与流派“语言学概论”是我国高校文科尤其是语言文学（汉语言文学、少数民族语言文学、外国语言文学）专业的基础理论课，是普通语言学的入门课。

语言学重点章节介绍

语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。

他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。

王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。

而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。

虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。

北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。

（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。

我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。

不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。

下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。

这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。

我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。

一定要在理解的基础上记忆。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。

也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。

错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。

因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。

Language and social class 语言与社会阶层

Language and social classIf you are an English-speaker you will be able to estimate the relative social status of the following speakers solely on the basis of the linguistic evidence given here:Speaker A Speaker BI done it yesterday I did it yesterdayHe ain’t got it He hasn’t got itIt was her what said it It was her that said itIf you heard these speakers say these things you would guess that B was of higher social status than A, and you would almost certainly be right. How is it that we are able to do this sort of thing?The answer lies in the existence of varieties of language which have come to be called socialclass dialects. There are grammatical differences between the speech of these two speakers which give us clues about their social backgrounds. It is also probable, although this is not indicated on the printed page, that these differences will be accompanied by phonetic and phonological differences— that is to say, there are also different social-class accents. The internal differentiation of human societies is reflected in their languages. Different social groups use different linguistic varieties, and as experienced members of a speech community we have learnt to classify speakers accordingly. Why does social differentiation have this effect on language?We may note parallels between the development of these social varieties and the development of regional varieties: in both cases barriers and distance appear to be relevant. Dialectologists have found that regional-dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers, such as mountains, swamps or rivers: for example, all local-dialect speakers in the areas of Britain north of the river Humber (between Lincolnshire and Yorkshire) still have a monophthong in words like house (‘hoose’ [hu:s], whereas speakers south of the river have had some kind of [haus]-type diphthong for several hundred years. It also seems to be the case that the greater the geographical distance between two dialects the more dissimilar they are linguistically: for instance, those regional varieties of British English which are most unlike the speech of London are undoubtedly those of the north-east of Scotland — Buchan, for example. The development of social varieties can perhaps be explained in the same sort of way — in terms of social barriers and social distance. The diffusion of a linguistic feature through a society may be halted by barriers of social class, age, race, religion or other factors. And social distance may have the same sort of effect as geographical distance: a linguistic innovation that begins amongst, say, the highest social group will affect thelowest social group last, if at all. (We must be careful, however, not to explain all social differences of language in these entirely mechanical terms since, as we saw in Chapter 1, attitudes to language clearly play an important role in preserving or removing dialect differences.)Of the many forms of social differentiation, for example, by class, age, sex, race or religion, we shall concentrate in this chapter on the particular type of social differentiation 35 illustrated in the examples of speakers A and B —social stratification.Social stratification is a term used to refer to any hierarchical ordering of groups within a society. In the industrialized societies of the West this takes the form of stratification into social classes, and gives rise linguistically to social-class dialects. (The whole question of social class is in fact somewhat controversial, especially since sociologists are not agreed as to the exact nature, definition or existence of social classes […].)Social-class stratification is not universal, however. In India, for example, society is stratified into different castes. As far as the linguist is concerned, caste dialects are in some ways easier to study and describe than social-class dialects. This is because castes are stable, clearly named groups, rigidly separated from each other, with hereditary membership and with little possibility of movement f rom one caste to another. […].In the class societies of the English-speaking world the social situation is much more fluid, and the linguistic situation is therefore rather more complex, at least in certain respects. Social classes are not clearly defined or labelled entities but simply aggregates of people with similar social and economic characteristics; and social mobility —movement up or down the social hierarchy — is perfectly possible. This makes things much more difficult for any linguist who wishes to describe a particular variety — the more heterogeneous a society is, the more heterogeneous is its language.For many years the linguist’s reaction to this complexity was generally to ignore it — in two rather different ways. Many linguists concentrated their studies on the idiolect — the speech of one person at one time in one style — which was thought (largely erroneously […]) to be more regular than the speech of the community as a whole. Dialectologists, on the other hand, concentrated on the speech of rural informants, and in particular on that of elderly people of little education or travel experience, in small isolated villages, […mainly because] there was a feeling that hidden somewhere in the speech of older, uneducated people were the ‘real’ or ‘pure’ dialects which were steadily being corrupted by the standard variety […] (It turns out that the ‘pure’ homogeneous dialect is also largely a mythical concept: all language is subject to stylistic and social differentiation, because all human communities are functionally differentiated and heterogeneous to varying degrees. All language varieties are subject to change. There is, therefore, an element of differentiation even in the most isolated conservative rural dialect.) From: c. 2 in P. Trudgill, Sociolinguistics. An Introduction to Language and Society,London, Penguin, 1983 (rev. ed.), pp. 34-35.SCUOLA SUPERIORE DELL’UNIVERSITA' DEGLI STUDI DI UDINEESAME DI AMMISSIONE PER LA CLASSE UMANISTICAPROVA SCRITTA DI LINGUA INGLESEA.A. 2004/2005Nome e cognome:______________________________________________________________Read the attached text (“Language and social class”) and do the exercises below. Part A: Approaching the textExercise 1: In the attached text there are 7 indented paragraphs. Match each thematic sectionbelow (1., 2., 3., 4.) with the paragraph(s) which is / are conceptually related to it.Ex. 1. Native speakers’ language awareness (par. __No. 6-7___)DO NOT INSERT THE SAME PARAGRAPH INTO MORE THAN ONESUB-HEADING1. Native speakers’ language awareness (par. __________ )2. Effects of social differentiation on grammar and phonology (par. __________ )3. Analogies between regional and social dialects (par. __________ )4. Social-class dialects: relativity and complexity (par. __________ )Exercise 2: Match each connective below with the function it performs in the text by filling thecorresponding blank with eithera (for Additive)b (for Concessive)c (for Causal)or d (for Contrastive).(PAY ATTENTION TO THE REFERENCE LINE IN BRACKETS AND WRITE ONLY ONE LETTERIN EACH BLANK)1. although (l. 11) _______2. for example (l. 20) _______3. whereas (l. 22) _______4. also (l. 23) _______5. however (l. 31) _______6. since (l. 39) _______7. on the other hand (l. 55) _______8. therefore (l. 62) _______Part B: Intensive readingExercise 3: Read the text carefully and tick ( . ) the appropriate answer:1. What is the overall function of the chapter from which this excerpt has been taken?. to put forward a new theory to explain the development oflinguistic varieties. to investigate the influence of social stratification onlanguage use. to explore the relationships between social accents andsocial dialects2. This text is an extract from a textbook called Sociolinguistics. An Introduction to Language andSociety. Can you guess which of the following topics is NOT likely to be dealt with systematically in the book?. How Languages Are Learned. Language and Context. Language and Ethnic GroupExercise 4: Making reference to the text, decide whether the following statements are TRUE (T), orFALSE (F), or INCOMPLETE (I) paraphrases of the information conveyed in the text (N.B.: thevarious statements appear in the order in which the information is presented in the text): 1. According to the author, social-class accents distinguish social differences in spoken language ( __ )2. Social differences of language may be determined by social barriers and social distance ( __ )3. Social stratification in the West can be compared to caste society in the East,each having its own characteristic traits ( __ )4. For many years a lot of linguists wrongly considered the idiolect to be less subject to change than the speech of the community as a whole ( __ )5. According to the author, original, uncorrupted dialect forms can be found amongstthe most elderly and isolated segment of a population ( __ )Exercise 5: The following is a list of synonyms for words/expressions which appear in the text inthe paragraph indicated in brackets and in the order given on the list. Find the correspondingwords/expressions and write them down, together with their respective line number:1. assess [verb] (par. 1) _________________ (line ___ )2. indications / signs / hints (par. 2) __________________ (line ___ )3. skilled / knowledgeable [adj.] (par.2) __________________ (line ___ )4. consequently / as a result of this (par. 2) __________________ (line ___ )5. pertinent (par. 3) _________________ (line ___ )6. borders [pl. noun] (par. 3) _________________ (line ___ )7. marsh / wet land (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )8. circulation (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )9. stopped (past participle) (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )10. influence [verb] (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )11. debatable (par. 4) _________________ (line ___ )12. unchanging (par. 5) __________________ (line ___ )13. variable [adj.] (par. 6) _________________ (line ___ )14. scale (par. 6) __________________ (line ___ )15. disregard / neglect [verb] (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )16. illiterate [adj.] (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )17. constantly / progressively (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )Part C: Guided writingExercise 6: Re-read the text’s lines indicated in brackets and then complete the f ollowing paraphrases by circling ONE word/expression for each missing item:(ll. 14-16) Sociolinguistic competence involves being able to classify speakers (like / as) belongingto different social groups on the grounds of the linguistic variety they use(ll. 27-29) Social class, age, race and religion, (among / between) other factors, may prove to bepowerful barriers (who / which) prevent the diffusion of a linguistic feature through society.(ll. 52-53) For many years there (has been / was) a general tendency to ignore language variation.Exercise 7: What follows is an extract (pp. 39-40) from the follow-up of the text “Language andSocial Class”. It describes the results of a large-scale survey of the speech of New York conductedby the American linguist William Labov in 1966 and evaluates them against previously- held views.Complete the extract by choosing one option for each missing item from the list below: (1) developed by Labov have proved to be very significant for the study of social-class dialects andaccents. The methods of traditional dialectology (2) be adequate for the description of caste dialects(though even this is (3)) since (4) individual, however selected, stands a fair chance of (5) not toodifferent from the caste group as a whole. But it is not possible to select any single speaker and togeneralize from (6) to the rest of the speakers in his social-class group. This was an important point(7) was demonstrated (8) Labov.The speech of a single speaker (his idiolect) may differ considerably from those of (9) like him.(10), it may also be internally very inconsistent. The speech of (11) New Yorkers appeared to varyin a completely random and unpredictable manner. […] Sometimes they would say beard and badin the same way, sometimes they would (12) a difference. Linguists have traditionally called this'free variation'. Labov (13) , however, that the variation is not free. Viewed against the backgroundof the speech community as a whole the variation was not random but determined by extralinguisticfactors in (14) predictable way. That is, the researcher could not predict on any one occasion (15) anindividual would say cah or car, but he could show that, if he was of a certain social class, age andsex, he (16) one or other variant approximately x per cent of the time, on average, in agivensituation. The idiolect might appear random, but the speech community was quite predictable.(1) a. The methods b. Methods c. A method(2) a. will b. may c. need to(3) a. doubtless b. doubting c. doubtful(4) a. any b. some c. no(5) a. being b. be c. to be(6) a. his b. he c. him(7) a. who b. whom c. that(8) a. by b. from c. since(9) a. other b. the other c. others(10) a. Therefore b. Moreover c. Nevertheless(11) a. most b. the most c. most of(12) a. do b. make c. cause(13) a. show b. shown c. showed(14) a. a quite b. quite a c. quite(15) a. that b. how c. whether(16) a. used b. would use c. would have usedExercise 8: Given that "all language is subject to stylistic and social differentiation, because allhuman communities are functionally differentiated and heterogeneous to varying degrees",DISCUSS (in approx. 200 words) the impact of globalisation on language from a sociolinguisticpoint of view. Use the space below.。

Chapter-9-语言学--Language-and-literature

The red-haired woman, smiling, waving to the disappearing shore. She left the mahareajah; she left innumerable other lights o’passing love in towns and cities and theatres and railway stations all over the world. But Melchior she did not leave.
Chapter 9 Language and
Literature
1
Teaching Focus
1. Style and Stylistics 2. Foregrounding 3. Literal language and figurative language 4. Analysis of literary language 5. The language in poetry
It deals with the close relationship between language and literature.
It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.
6
The scope is sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses.

《英语语言学概论》配套习题(三)(填空题)

《英语语言学概论》配套习题（三）（填空题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguisticsnguage, broadly speaking, is a means of _________ communicaiton.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed ___________.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. Thisfunction is _______.4.Linguistics is the scientific study of ______.5.Modern linguistcs is _________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discoverwhat language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.6.The description of a language as it changes through time is a _______ study.7.Saussure put forward two important concepts. _________ refrs to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.8.Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s _______. Chapter 2 Phonology1.__________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing thesounds of speech.2.Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound.These movemnts have an effect on the ______ coming from the lungs.3.Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth arebrought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing ______.4.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _____ and the lips.5.consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without _______.6.In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because ofthe two phonemes /f/-/v/. This is an example for illustrating ________.7.In English there are a number of ______, which are produced by moving from onevowel position to another through intervening positions.8.________ is the smallest linguistic unit.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ______ and ______ root.2.An _________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an ________ is pronounced asa word.3.Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _______.4.All words may be said to contain a root ________.5.______ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.6.________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of itsinflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa. 7.words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the _______level.8. A word formed by derivation is called a _______, and a word formed bycompounding is called a ________.Chapter 4 Syntax1. A _________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number ofwords to form a complete statement, question or command.2.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called _____ rules, whoseoperation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.3. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time standsstrucutrally alone is known as a ______ clause.4.The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place iscommonly termed ________ structure.5._______ construciton refers to two or more words, phrases or clauses havingquivalent syntactic status.6.IC analysis emphasizes the _____ structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting ofword groups first.7.XP may contain more than just X. e.g. the “NP”the girl who is watering theflowers” consists of Det, N and S, with Det being the ____, N the head, and s the complement.8._____ relaitons refers to the strucutreal and logical funcitonal relations betweenevery noun phrase and sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics1._________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.2.“Charge” and “accuse” are said to be _____ synonyms.3._______ opposites may be een in terms of degrees of quality involved.4.Predication analysis is to break down predicaitons into their constituents:_____and _____.5.______ sentences express judgment.6.we call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as ______.7.We call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as ______.8.The hyponyms under the same superordinate are called _____.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.In making conversation, the genral principle that all participants are expected toobserve is called the ______ Principle proposed by J. Grice.2. A ____ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveyingliteral meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.3._______ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.4.______ are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to somefuture course of action.5. A _____ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.6.________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.7._________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and werenot verifiable.8.All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same______ point, but they differ in their strength or force.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or aparticular variety of language.2.3.The ______ language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.4. A _________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as anative language in some speech community.5. A linguistic ________ refer to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“polite” society from general use.6.Taboo and ______ are two faces of the same communication coin.7.Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _______.8.In terms of sociolinguistics, ________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of aperson’s language.9.In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak morethan one language. As a characteristic of societies, ________ inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different cultures and different languages.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1 knowledge.This process is called lanugage _______.2.Such errors as “teached” and “womans” are caused by _____.3.The __ of the learner’s interlanguage is believed to be a major source of incorrectforms resistant to further instruction.4.In second language learning, instrucmental motivation occurs when the learner;sgoal is functional, and _____ motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.5.The description of a language development at some point in time is _____ study.6.______ holds that where two languages are similar, positive transfer would occur;where they are diffferent, negative transfer, or interference, would result.7._________ Denativization an d____ are both thought to be the causes for theinterlanguage variation.8.____ holds L1 can be viewed as a kind of “input from the inside”, thus transfer isnot “interference” but a cognitive preocess.Chapter 12 Language and Brain1.The localization of cognitive and perceptual function in a particular hemisphere ofthe brain is called ___________.2.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the______ cortex.3.Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nervecells called _________.4.Psychological research suggests that the two hemispheres difer in the manner inwhich they treat incoming stimuli, the right hemisphere processing stimuli ______ (as wholes) and the left _____ (by parts).5.The acts of comprehending and producing language are performed within theconstraints of our information processing system. This system consists of three structural components: sensory stores, _____ memory, and ______ memory, along with a set of contro processes that govern the flow of information within the system.6.Of particualr importance to speech and language funciton is the massivetransverse fiber tract called the _____, by means of which the two hemispheres are able to communicate with each other in the form of electrical impulses.7.When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we mayregard thought as “_________ speech,” and speech as “over thought.” In such a case speaking and thingking take place simultaneously.8.The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two thrusts: linguistic ______ and linguistic____________.。

语言与社会的关系英语作文

Language is the cornerstone of human society, acting as a vital tool for communication, expression, and the transmission of culture. It is through language that we are able to connect with one another, share our experiences, and build a collective understanding of the world around us. The relationship between language and society is a complex and dynamic one, with each influencing and shaping the other in profound ways.Growing up, I was always fascinated by the power of language. I remember being a child, listening to the stories my grandparents would tell in our native language, and feeling a deep connection to our familys history and traditions. It was through these stories that I began to understand the importance of language in preserving cultural identity and passing down knowledge from one generation to the next.As I grew older and began to learn new languages, I became even more aware of the role that language plays in shaping our social interactions and perceptions of the world. For example, when I started learning English, I found that it opened up a whole new world of opportunities for me. I was able to communicate with people from different countries, access a wealth of information and resources, and gain a broader perspective on global issues.However, I also noticed that language can sometimes act as a barrier, creating divisions and perpetuating stereotypes. In high school, I had friends who struggled with English and felt excluded from certain social circles or academic opportunities. This made me realize that language can be a powerful tool for both inclusion and exclusion, depending on how it isused and who has access to it.Furthermore, I believe that language is closely tied to social change and progress. Throughout history, language has been used as a means of challenging the status quo and advocating for social justice. For instance, the civil rights movement in the United States relied heavily on powerful speeches and written works to raise awareness and inspire action. Similarly, the feminist movement has used language to challenge gender norms and promote equality.In todays increasingly globalized world, the relationship between language and society is more important than ever. With the rise of social media and digital communication, language is constantly evolving and adapting to new contexts and audiences. This presents both opportunities and challenges for individuals and communities alike.On one hand, the proliferation of language learning apps and online resources has made it easier than ever to access and learn new languages. This can help to break down barriers and foster greater understanding between different cultures and societies. On the other hand, the dominance of certain languages, such as English, can sometimes lead to the marginalization of minority languages and cultures.In conclusion, the relationship between language and society is a multifaceted and everevolving one. As a high school student, I have seen firsthand how language can both connect and divide us, shape our worldviews, and drive social change. It is up to each of us to use languageresponsibly and mindfully, to promote inclusivity and understanding, and to celebrate the rich diversity of human expression. By doing so, we can harness the power of language to build a more just and equitable society for all.。

社会语言学共16页PPT资料

Speech variety (language variety): any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker (e.g. idiolect) or a group of speakers (dialect, sociolect).
1. Sociolinguistics
1.2 Two Fundamental Concepts
Speech community: a group of people who form a community (e.g. a village, a region, a nation) and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.
Class: I did it yesterday. I done it yesterday. Gender: 讨厌 Age: netspeak Ethnic group: They mine, You crazy. [Black English] Individuality: idiolect (a personal dialect of an
Macro-sociolinguistics (sociolinguistic study of society): the study of language use to know more about a given society or community, e.g. bilingualism, language planning, language standardization, etc.
2. Language Variation

Languageandsociety

• Social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.
• Upper class: America, cake, helping, ice, lavatory, looking glass, pudding, relatives, rich, Royalties, scent, scurf, sick, sofa, spectacles, writing paper
• Lower class: the States, pastry, portion, ice-cream, toilet, mirror, dessert, relations, wealthy, Royals, perfume, dandruff, ill, settee, glasses, notepaper,
more Ls. • Eg. Nigerian Pidgin English;
Vietnamese Pidgin French; New Guinea Pidgin German, etc.
• 上海话中的洋泾浜英语
• “蹩脚”（BILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的）
• “大兴”（DASHY，浮华的，华而不实的，引申为假的、冒牌的、劣质的）
• Code–mixing: refers to the change from one language to the other within the same utterance .
• “Hi，你好呀！This morning，我们对你的 case进行了discuss，我们发现，这对我们没什么benefit。所以我们不得不遗憾地告诉你：与这件事相关的所有Project都将被cancel掉。”

Language and social class 语言与社会阶层

Language and social classIf you are an English-speaker you will be able to estimate the relative social status of the following speakers solely on the basis of the linguistic evidence given here:Speaker A Speaker BI done it yesterday I did it yesterdayHe ain’t got it He hasn’t got itIt was her what said it It was her that said itIf you heard these speakers say these things you would guess that B was of higher social status than A, and you would almost certainly be right. How is it that we are able to do this sort of thing?The answer lies in the existence of varieties of language which have come to be called socialclass dialects. There are grammatical differences between the speech of these two speakers which give us clues about their social backgrounds. It is also probable, although this is not indicated on the printed page, that these differences will be accompanied by phonetic and phonological differences— that is to say, there are also different social-class accents. The internal differentiation of human societies is reflected in their languages. Different social groups use different linguistic varieties, and as experienced members of a speech community we have learnt to classify speakers accordingly. Why does social differentiation have this effect on language?We may note parallels between the development of these social varieties and the development of regional varieties: in both cases barriers and distance appear to be relevant. Dialectologists have found that regional-dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers, such as mountains, swamps or rivers: for example, all local-dialect speakers in the areas of Britain north of the river Humber (between Lincolnshire and Yorkshire) still have a monophthong in words like house (‘hoose’ [hu:s], whereas speakers south of the river have had some kind of [haus]-type diphthong for several hundred years. It also seems to be the case that the greater the geographical distance between two dialects the more dissimilar they are linguistically: for instance, those regional varieties of British English which are most unlike the speech of London are undoubtedly those of the north-east of Scotland — Buchan, for example. The development of social varieties can perhaps be explained in the same sort of way — in terms of social barriers and social distance. The diffusion of a linguistic feature through a society may be halted by barriers of social class, age, race, religion or other factors. And social distance may have the same sort of effect as geographical distance: a linguistic innovation that begins amongst, say, the highest social group will affect thelowest social group last, if at all. (We must be careful, however, not to explain all social differences of language in these entirely mechanical terms since, as we saw in Chapter 1, attitudes to language clearly play an important role in preserving or removing dialect differences.)Of the many forms of social differentiation, for example, by class, age, sex, race or religion, we shall concentrate in this chapter on the particular type of social differentiation 35 illustrated in the examples of speakers A and B —social stratification.Social stratification is a term used to refer to any hierarchical ordering of groups within a society. In the industrialized societies of the West this takes the form of stratification into social classes, and gives rise linguistically to social-class dialects. (The whole question of social class is in fact somewhat controversial, especially since sociologists are not agreed as to the exact nature, definition or existence of social classes […].)Social-class stratification is not universal, however. In India, for example, society is stratified into different castes. As far as the linguist is concerned, caste dialects are in some ways easier to study and describe than social-class dialects. This is because castes are stable, clearly named groups, rigidly separated from each other, with hereditary membership and with little possibility of movement f rom one caste to another. […].In the class societies of the English-speaking world the social situation is much more fluid, and the linguistic situation is therefore rather more complex, at least in certain respects. Social classes are not clearly defined or labelled entities but simply aggregates of people with similar social and economic characteristics; and social mobility —movement up or down the social hierarchy — is perfectly possible. This makes things much more difficult for any linguist who wishes to describe a particular variety — the more heterogeneous a society is, the more heterogeneous is its language.For many years the linguist’s reaction to this complexity was generally to ignore it — in two rather different ways. Many linguists concentrated their studies on the idiolect — the speech of one person at one time in one style — which was thought (largely erroneously […]) to be more regular than the speech of the community as a whole. Dialectologists, on the other hand, concentrated on the speech of rural informants, and in particular on that of elderly people of little education or travel experience, in small isolated villages, […mainly because] there was a feeling that hidden somewhere in the speech of older, uneducated people were the ‘real’ or ‘pure’ dialects which were steadily being corrupted by the standard variety […] (It turns out that the ‘pure’ homogeneous dialect is also largely a mythical concept: all language is subject to stylistic and social differentiation, because all human communities are functionally differentiated and heterogeneous to varying degrees. All language varieties are subject to change. There is, therefore, an element of differentiation even in the most isolated conservative rural dialect.) From: c. 2 in P. Trudgill, Sociolinguistics. An Introduction to Language and Society,London, Penguin, 1983 (rev. ed.), pp. 34-35.SCUOLA SUPERIORE DELL’UNIVERSITA' DEGLI STUDI DI UDINEESAME DI AMMISSIONE PER LA CLASSE UMANISTICAPROVA SCRITTA DI LINGUA INGLESEA.A. 2004/2005Nome e cognome:______________________________________________________________Read the attached text (“Language and social class”) and do the exercises below. Part A: Approaching the textExercise 1: In the attached text there are 7 indented paragraphs. Match each thematic sectionbelow (1., 2., 3., 4.) with the paragraph(s) which is / are conceptually related to it.Ex. 1. Native speakers’ language awareness (par. __No. 6-7___)DO NOT INSERT THE SAME PARAGRAPH INTO MORE THAN ONESUB-HEADING1. Native speakers’ language awareness (par. __________ )2. Effects of social differentiation on grammar and phonology (par. __________ )3. Analogies between regional and social dialects (par. __________ )4. Social-class dialects: relativity and complexity (par. __________ )Exercise 2: Match each connective below with the function it performs in the text by filling thecorresponding blank with eithera (for Additive)b (for Concessive)c (for Causal)or d (for Contrastive).(PAY ATTENTION TO THE REFERENCE LINE IN BRACKETS AND WRITE ONLY ONE LETTERIN EACH BLANK)1. although (l. 11) _______2. for example (l. 20) _______3. whereas (l. 22) _______4. also (l. 23) _______5. however (l. 31) _______6. since (l. 39) _______7. on the other hand (l. 55) _______8. therefore (l. 62) _______Part B: Intensive readingExercise 3: Read the text carefully and tick ( . ) the appropriate answer:1. What is the overall function of the chapter from which this excerpt has been taken?. to put forward a new theory to explain the development oflinguistic varieties. to investigate the influence of social stratification onlanguage use. to explore the relationships between social accents andsocial dialects2. This text is an extract from a textbook called Sociolinguistics. An Introduction to Language andSociety. Can you guess which of the following topics is NOT likely to be dealt with systematically in the book?. How Languages Are Learned. Language and Context. Language and Ethnic GroupExercise 4: Making reference to the text, decide whether the following statements are TRUE (T), orFALSE (F), or INCOMPLETE (I) paraphrases of the information conveyed in the text (N.B.: thevarious statements appear in the order in which the information is presented in the text): 1. According to the author, social-class accents distinguish social differences in spoken language ( __ )2. Social differences of language may be determined by social barriers and social distance ( __ )3. Social stratification in the West can be compared to caste society in the East,each having its own characteristic traits ( __ )4. For many years a lot of linguists wrongly considered the idiolect to be less subject to change than the speech of the community as a whole ( __ )5. According to the author, original, uncorrupted dialect forms can be found amongstthe most elderly and isolated segment of a population ( __ )Exercise 5: The following is a list of synonyms for words/expressions which appear in the text inthe paragraph indicated in brackets and in the order given on the list. Find the correspondingwords/expressions and write them down, together with their respective line number:1. assess [verb] (par. 1) _________________ (line ___ )2. indications / signs / hints (par. 2) __________________ (line ___ )3. skilled / knowledgeable [adj.] (par.2) __________________ (line ___ )4. consequently / as a result of this (par. 2) __________________ (line ___ )5. pertinent (par. 3) _________________ (line ___ )6. borders [pl. noun] (par. 3) _________________ (line ___ )7. marsh / wet land (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )8. circulation (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )9. stopped (past participle) (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )10. influence [verb] (par. 3) __________________ (line ___ )11. debatable (par. 4) _________________ (line ___ )12. unchanging (par. 5) __________________ (line ___ )13. variable [adj.] (par. 6) _________________ (line ___ )14. scale (par. 6) __________________ (line ___ )15. disregard / neglect [verb] (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )16. illiterate [adj.] (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )17. constantly / progressively (par. 7) __________________ (line ___ )Part C: Guided writingExercise 6: Re-read the text’s lines indicated in brackets and then complete the f ollowing paraphrases by circling ONE word/expression for each missing item:(ll. 14-16) Sociolinguistic competence involves being able to classify speakers (like / as) belongingto different social groups on the grounds of the linguistic variety they use(ll. 27-29) Social class, age, race and religion, (among / between) other factors, may prove to bepowerful barriers (who / which) prevent the diffusion of a linguistic feature through society.(ll. 52-53) For many years there (has been / was) a general tendency to ignore language variation.Exercise 7: What follows is an extract (pp. 39-40) from the follow-up of the text “Language andSocial Class”. It describes the results of a large-scale survey of the speech of New York conductedby the American linguist William Labov in 1966 and evaluates them against previously- held views.Complete the extract by choosing one option for each missing item from the list below: (1) developed by Labov have proved to be very significant for the study of social-class dialects andaccents. The methods of traditional dialectology (2) be adequate for the description of caste dialects(though even this is (3)) since (4) individual, however selected, stands a fair chance of (5) not toodifferent from the caste group as a whole. But it is not possible to select any single speaker and togeneralize from (6) to the rest of the speakers in his social-class group. This was an important point(7) was demonstrated (8) Labov.The speech of a single speaker (his idiolect) may differ considerably from those of (9) like him.(10), it may also be internally very inconsistent. The speech of (11) New Yorkers appeared to varyin a completely random and unpredictable manner. […] Sometimes they would say beard and badin the same way, sometimes they would (12) a difference. Linguists have traditionally called this'free variation'. Labov (13) , however, that the variation is not free. Viewed against the backgroundof the speech community as a whole the variation was not random but determined by extralinguisticfactors in (14) predictable way. That is, the researcher could not predict on any one occasion (15) anindividual would say cah or car, but he could show that, if he was of a certain social class, age andsex, he (16) one or other variant approximately x per cent of the time, on average, in agivensituation. The idiolect might appear random, but the speech community was quite predictable.(1) a. The methods b. Methods c. A method(2) a. will b. may c. need to(3) a. doubtless b. doubting c. doubtful(4) a. any b. some c. no(5) a. being b. be c. to be(6) a. his b. he c. him(7) a. who b. whom c. that(8) a. by b. from c. since(9) a. other b. the other c. others(10) a. Therefore b. Moreover c. Nevertheless(11) a. most b. the most c. most of(12) a. do b. make c. cause(13) a. show b. shown c. showed(14) a. a quite b. quite a c. quite(15) a. that b. how c. whether(16) a. used b. would use c. would have usedExercise 8: Given that "all language is subject to stylistic and social differentiation, because allhuman communities are functionally differentiated and heterogeneous to varying degrees",DISCUSS (in approx. 200 words) the impact of globalisation on language from a sociolinguisticpoint of view. Use the space below.。

戴炜栋语言学-Language and Society

戴炜栋语言学-Language and Society●8.1 The scope of sociolinguistics社会语言学的范围●8.1.1 The relatedness between language andsociety 语言和社会的相关性●社会语言学是语言学的次领域,是研究语言和社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。

Sociolinguistics is the sub-field oflinguistics that studies the relation between language and society,between the uses oflanguage and the social structures in which the users of language live.●语言在交际的同时，也来维持社会关系One of them is that while language isprincipally used to communicate meaning,it is also used to establish and maintainsocial relationships.●语言，尤其是词汇结构，反应了一个社会的物质和社会环境language, especiallythe structure ofits lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of asociety.●8.1.2 Speech community and speech variety.言语社区和言语变体●言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as members ofsocialgroups. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called speechcommunity●言语变体：Speech variety,or refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by aspeaker or a group of speakers.●3 types of speech variety: regional dialects, sociolects, and registers●8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies社会语言学研究的两种途径●macro-sociolinguistics宏观社会语言学●We can look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it andhow it reflects the social differentiations, i.e. a bird'seye view of the languagesused in society.●micro-sociolinguistics微观社会语言学●The other approach is to look at society from the point of view of an individualmember within it, ora worm's eye view of language in use.●8.2 Varieties of language语言变体the notion of a language is not monolithic there exist types or varieties of the same language. Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.●8.2.1 Dialectal varieties方言变体●Regional dialect地域方言●A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the samegeographical region.●Sociolect社会方言●social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different socialconditions. Social-class dialect,or sociolect, refers to the linguistic varietycharacteristic of a particular social class.●can reveal identity and status●Language and gender 语言和性别●Women are on the whole more “correct” in their pronunciation than men are.●The female tends to have a wider range in their intonation,●female speaker use low-rise intonation with statesments much more frequently●adjectives of evaluation are used more frequently by females●girls can be used regardless of age of the addresse●Language and age语言和年龄● in many communities the language used by the older generation differs from thatused by the younger generation in certain ways. Certain linguistic features occur more frequently in the speech of one generation than in that of the other.● old people tend to be more conservative than the younger generation●Idiolect个人语言●Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elementsregarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.●also includes factors as voice quality, pitch and speech, tempo and rhythm.●Ethnic dialect 种族方言●eg.Black English●A prominent phonological feature of Black English is thesimplification ofconsonant clusters at the end of a word.●A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show itsillogicality is the deletion of the link verb "be".●copula verb deletion 双重否定结构●8.2.2 Register语域● A competent native speaker of a language is in possession of a variety of ways inusing the language. The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.个体的所有语言变体构成了他的语言变体库●语域：The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the typeofsituation is a register.●Halliday further distinguishes 3 social variables that determine the register: fieldof discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.决定语域的三个变体：语场，语旨，语式●语场：Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of thelanguage activity. It is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter ofcommunication.It answers the questio ns of "why"and "about what”communication takes place.●语旨：Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation inquestion,who the participants n the communication groups are andf. in whatrelationship)they stand to each other.●语式：Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.Thedistinction between speaking and writing.●8.2.3 Degree of formality正式度●Martin Joos: distinguishes 5 stages of formality, intimate,casual, consultative,formal, and frozen●8.3 Standard dialect.标准方言●The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language.标准方言是一门语言中叠加的，具有社会优越感的方言。

Language_and_Society

More importantly, it is argued that these differences in language uses are brought about by nothingless than women's place in society. Some sociologists and linguistics even claim that the so called women register is not only used by women but also by powerless members in society.
Women use more tag question
John is here, isn’t he?
Women use more statement questions
Dinner will be ready at seven o’clock?
Women's linguistic behaviour is more indirect and more polite than men’s Indirect request "Wow, I'm so thirsty." is really asking for a drink.
Anthropologist Geertz
An Example
" Are you going to eat rice and cassava now?"
The sentence will situationally admit several
Javanese translation, from a lower level to higher