英语语言学 总结
语言学知识点概括
语言学知识点概括Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rul es of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
(完整版)英语语言学超强总结
语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的差异性特色：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality指语言由两层结构组成创立性creativity指语言能够被创立移位性displacement指语言能够代表时间和空间上不能及的物体、时间、见解2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、流传、接受过程，观察人类语言中的声音音位学phonology研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics不但关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics计算机语言学 computational linguistics5语言学中的重要差异规定式和描述式：规定式：prescriptive 说明事情应该是怎么样的描述式： descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特准时期语言历时： diachronic研究语言发展规律语言和语言：语言：langue 指语言系统的整体语言： parole 指详尽实质运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky 提出 )能力： competence 用语言的人的语言知识储备运用： performance 真实的语言使用者在实质中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学声学语言学听觉语音学articulatory phonetics 研究语言的产生acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA （国际音标）是由daniel Jones 琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对峙体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3音位变体allophones4互补分布 complementary distribution5自由变体 free variation6差异特色 distinctive features7超音段特色 suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音 stress 语调 tone 声调 intonation四形态学1词的组成语素 morpheme 自由语素 free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化 lexical change proper新创词语 invention 混拼词 blending 缩写词 abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym逆构词汇 back-formation 例： editor— edit类推构词 analogiacal creation 例： work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing五句法学1范围 category 数 number性 gender 格 case 时 tense 体 aspect一致关系 concord支配关系 govenrment2结构主义学派 the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation 词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 拥有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents : 句子不但是线性结构liner structure 还是层级结构hierarchical structure(句子或短语被称为结构体，而组成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分解析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，获取下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能够再分4向心结构和离心结构 endocentric and exocentric constructions向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为 man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
英语语言学复习总结
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2、The design/defining features of human language Charles Hockett1 Arbitrariness----No logical motivated or intrinsic connection between sounds and meanings.----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words.2 Productivity/creativityWe can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurringException: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.3 Duality▪Lower level----sounds meaningless▪Higher level----meaning larger units of meaningException: the grouping of the three sounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/ can mean either a kind of fishcrap, or a public place for rest and amusementpark.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.Exception: Yesterday which book did you read5 Cultural transmissionLanguage can transmit Culture which the language contains.Exception；an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted.3、word formation1CompoundIt refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. icecream, sunrise, paperbag2 DerivationIt refers to the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.Unconscious, national, nationalize3 BlendingIt refers to the form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Smoke + fog = smog 烟雾4 Abbreviation1cutting the final part or with a slightvariation advertisement-----ad2 cutting the initial part aeroplane -----plane3 cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly refrigerator ---- fridge5 AcronymIIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. WB : World BankAcronymIIThis process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. VAT : value added tax 增殖税6 Back- formationIt refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the languageEditor ------edit7 BorrowingLatin: cancer, page, .that is . for example etc. et ceteraChinese: taji, chow mein, kung-fuJapanese: JudoFrench, German, Italian, Spanish8 InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.4. XP rulerule: specifier + head + complement2. XP rule: SpecifierX’X’à Xcomplement3. XP rule :Specifier X Complement4. XP rule:Spec Mod X Complement ModComplement: in grammar that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which thus completes the sentence.Features:Ø one or more complements are permittedØ eg. A story about a sentimental girl with purple umbrella …Ø words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CPØ. take it; poor as a chuch mouse;the man with hat;right near the fireplaceØ A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement.Ø. come to school; go to bed; look through itModifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position exampleAP Precedes the head a very careful girlPP Follows the head open with careAdvP Precedes or follows thehead read carefully; carefully read5. 请从Behaviorism 的角度来举例说明其意义：Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”S__Tang Wanyi_____r--------s______Vicky______RWhen Tang Wanyi sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical stimulus, represented by the capital letters, which gives rise to a verbal responser to Vicky. For instance, she might say to Vicky ”I’m thirsty”. What she says results in a verbal stimulus to Vicky represented by the small letter S. This stimulus, in its turn, leads to a non-verbal response from Vicky, such as picking the apple for her.6. synonymy同义现象Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms1 Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects 地区方言autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline 地方2 Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style,文体风格上不同kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3 Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningexamples in Mandarin情感上和评价判断上的不同合作者/同谋；结果/下场；鼓励/…；领袖/…；赞扬/…团结4 Collocational synonyms搭配意义上的不同A group of people; a herd of wolves; a swarm of bees5 Semantically different synonyms语义不同surprise/astonish; finish/complete7、locutionary act, illocutionary act,perlocutionary actFor example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “the weather is clod in here” ;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer “to shut the window” ;Its perlocutionary act is the effect brought about; it can be “the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request”.作业本You have left the door wide open① the locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words ”you”, ”have”, ”door”, ”open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean② the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking. . asking someone to close the door.③ The perlocutionary act refers to the effect result of the utterance. It can be “the hearer clos e the door or refuse to comply with the request.8、Four maxims of CP IThe maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation----Be relevant make your contribution relevant.The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.先判断在分析,先判断是不是relation从literal meaning是不是同一个主题Conversational implicature会话含义,言外之意；会话含意In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is violated, . both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.填空,definition 判断选择Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to establishment of phoneticsPhonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processesSyntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.Semantics: it examines how meaning is encoded in language. It is concerned with 1meanings of the words. 2 levels of language below the word and above itPragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.Sociolinguistics: the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branchPsycholinguistics: relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how…. , how…Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”--------speakingAcoustic phonetics声学语音学；----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.-------soundingAuditory phonetics听觉语音学----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”--------listeningClassification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: ▪The manner of articulation▪The place of articulationBroad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, . clear l , pitNarrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, . dark l , aspirated pSemantics----the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.Naming theory’s Limitations1 Applicable to nouns only.2 There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.3 There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions.Conclusion on semantic triangleThe symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements words and phrases; The referent refers to the object in the world of experience; Thought or reference refers to concept.Relations:The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.7. Antonymy反义现象Antonymy: refers to the oppositeness of meaning.1. Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Old-young, hot-cold, tall-short2. Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. Alive-dead, male-female, …3. Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two itemsHusband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, employer-employee, give-receive…8. Homonymy同形异义Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling. tearn.-tearv., leadn.-leadv., …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, ballE,F, bank, watch, scale, fast, …Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning.▪“table” may mean:▪1. A piece of furniture▪2. All the people seated at a table▪ food that is put on a table▪4. A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.▪5. Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.……X entails Y蕴含关系▪X: John married a blond heiress.▪Y: John married a blond.▪X: Marry has been to Beijing.▪Y: Marry has been to China.▪Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.▪If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y预射关系▪X: His bike needs repairing.▪Y: He has a bike.▪Paul has given up smoking.▪Paul once smoked.▪If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.The Relatedness between Language and SocietyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.1. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships2. The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. social class, age, sex, education level, etc.3. Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. “snow” for Eskimo4. As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social the postvocalic r .Predication analysisIII1 The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.2 There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, .Green clouds are sleeping furiously.Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …Two-place predication: like, love, sa ve, bite, beat,…Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …No-place predication: It is hot.I like youtwo placeIt is hot no place…Performatives’Features Austin’s“I declare the meeting open.”1. first person, singular subject2. simple present tense3. indicative mood4. active voice5. performative verbs基本上所有的动词都是perfomativesSearle’s Classification of Speech Acts 1969判断出是那一种Assertives/representatives陈述---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, .I think the film is moving.I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.…I think it is good.Directives指令---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, .I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life…Sit down, please.Commissives承诺---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, such as promise or a threat. .I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.If you do not stop fighting, I’ll call the polic e.I promise to come.Expressives表达----Expressing the speaker’s psychological statefeeling and attitudes about something,such as an aplology, a complaint, to thank someone, to congratulate someone. .I’m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.…You are so wonderfulDeclarations宣告----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.…I now pronounce you man and wife.Note: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, .1I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer..2In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, pleaseCan you open the doorDo you mind opening the doorOpen the doorThe door pleaseLanguage changeperiods1 449—1100: Old EnglishBeginning: English-speaking Anglo-Saxon and Jutes invaded into the British IslesThe End: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersGlæs; guma; gat----glass ---man ---goat“Beowulf”---England 8century poem,brave warrior2 1100—1500 Middle EnglishBeginning: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersThe End:“European Renaissance Movement”Latin and French“The Canterbury Tales”----Geoffrey Chaucer 1345-14003 1500—the present Modern EnglishBeginning: “European Renaissance Movement”The End: the presentDiphthongs appears: ai, au, ei, eu, ou, oiBecause of pressing industry overspreading, the spelling forms are determined/less changes.Regional dialectReason: This differentiation is accounted for the lack of communication in the old days when travel was difficult.Female Speech’s Features1. Women are usually more status-conscious than men in theEnglish-speaking world; therefore, their speech closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men.2. The female speakers tend to have a wider range in their intonation.3. Female speech is, on the whole, less assertive and thus sounds to be more polite than male speech.Register: a Speech Variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation . doctors, lawyers or the same interests . stamp collectors, baseball fans.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:▪field of discourse,▪tenor of discourse,▪mode of discourseField of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose why and subject matter about what of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.Tenor of discourse:the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.Mode of discourse:the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. oral, written, on the line…Standard Variety:=standard dialect=standard language:the variety of a language which has the highest Status in a community of nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, . different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.文化影响语言,语言影响文化The inadequacy of behaviorist view1. What they imitate must be based on what the children have already known instead of what is “available” in the environment.2. They imitate words selectively and according to their own understandings of the sounds or patterns.3. how children acquire complex language system.Language acquisition device: LAD the capacity to acquire one’s First language, when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mechanism or apparatus.Universal Grammar: a theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. 了解一下UGprototype原型It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of Parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.According to UG theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, . English, French or German, and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter.Motherese’s Features1. shorter utterances than speech to other adults2. grammatically simple utterances3. few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetition4. clearer pronunciation, sometimes with exaggerated Intonation patterns CommentBehaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects;The innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system;And the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Critical Period Hypothesis CPH---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. Support in Victor’s and Genie’s casesVocabulary development1 Under-extension 外延缩小2 Over-extension外延延伸3 Prototype theoryGrammatical development1 Telegraphic speech 22 Sentences of three main elementsContrastive analysis CAthe comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system. Contrastive analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural Linguistics to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions1. The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language. language transfer2. These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference1970s, it declined and was replaced by Error Analysis▪Language transfer：the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur.▪“I am here since Monday.”▪“ I have been here since Monday.”▪Because of the transfer of the French pattern▪Je suis ici depuis lundi▪Negative transfer,负向转移 also known as interference, is the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an Error orinappropriate form in the Target Language. For example, a Frenchlearner of English may produce the incorrect sentence ▪“table, transport,restaurant, surprise”▪Positive transfer,正向转移 is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target languagehave the same form. For example, both French and English have theword ‘table’, which can have the same meaning in both languages.Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,a. Substitution of t for W and d for T: threeàtree, thisàdis.b. Shortening of long vowels: sheepàship, meetàmitIntralingual errorsThe intralingual errors mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.▪Two types of errors have been well exploited:overgeneralization & cross-associationTrue or False1. In an exciting argument, the speakers could express themselves fluently2. In an exciting argument, the speakers have grammatical expressions all the time3. After your listening others’ speech, could you repeat it totally4. About pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can identify the noun and verb in speaking “an apple” is a thing; “run” is an action5. And also about pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can define the term “noun”三、pairPrescriptive vs DescriptiveHe love that picture. We see a film yesterday.Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using languagetradition grammar“Give me that cup.” “ Could you bring me that cup”“ Cup”Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use modern linguisticsSynchronic vs diachronicA Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespear’s EnglishSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of timeLangue vs parole F. de SaussureLangue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Langue is the lexical, grammatical, and phonological constitution of a language to be implanted in the native speaker’s mind or brain in childhood as the collective product of the speech community envisaged as a supra-individual entity in its own right. In speaking his language thespeaker could only operate or perform within this langue; what he actually uttered was parole, and the only individual control he could exercise was when to speak and about what to speak.The aim to distinguish them is to abstract langue from parole. The reason to distinguish them is that parole is simply a mass oflinguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation.Langue Parole 1.abstract concrete 2all the members in actual use 3 linguistic competence of the speaker actual phenomena or data oflinguistics utterance4 not accessible5 social individual6 essential accidentalconclusion S ocial bond constitutes languageActive use of speakingCompetence and performance ChomskyCompetence ---- the i deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.distribution2. Phonemic contrast;pair.Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts. They never occur in the same context.Phonemic contrast----similar sounds, meanwhile can be used to distinguish the two phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Minimal pair----two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound one Phoneme and which also differ in meaning.Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemekindness; international; friendlyroot & affix----- Derivational morphemesfriendlytalks; talking; talked; boy’s; applesstem & affix----- Inflectional morphemesfriendsLexical meaning---basic notion of meaningsense: a dog: a domestic canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.Reference: the dog. a particular dog, we all know which one it is.vs. SemanticsPragmatics Semantics 1Study of the language in use The study of meaning 2Concerning the context Intrinsic, inherent 3More indeterminate, sth extra More constant 4Related to the context Inherent side of meaning 5Pragmatics = meaning – semanticsContext---- occurs before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etcTypes:1. context of situation: Do you prepare enoughof culture: Jane Eyremeaning vs. utterance meaningSentence meaning utterance meaning1 Abstract and context-independent meaning concrete and context-dependentmeaning2 literal meaning of a sentence i ntended meaning of a speaker3 What does X mean What did you mean by X。
英语语言学概论整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish itfrom any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehendingindefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivatedrelationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that representssomething else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a languageare meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language canbe used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds,the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passedon from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability(互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both aproducer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★(Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions ofchildren’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. A dult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学) The former dealswith language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachroniclinguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copeswith languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only thestructure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by allthe members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all thelinguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing iswritten codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为)People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The formerdescribes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use oflanguage as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy andsimplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theoryand the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significantgeneralizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s nativelanguage.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words andmeaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds iscalled articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission ofspeech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.4. consonant(辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is eithercompletely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in anyway and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restrictedby the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediatelyreleasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lipsforming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs(双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to anotherthrough intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowelposition to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q] 12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tensevowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is calledarticulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speechsounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones(音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particularphoneme.3. phones(单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called aphone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by onesound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environmentand the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the sameenvironment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7. free variation(自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and thesubstitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features(区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes onephoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features(超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply togroups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10. tone languages(声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning atword level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguishmeaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture(连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcategrammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds,while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstractdescription of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distributionbecause substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] arein complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially ina stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and/dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What arethe suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus haveeffect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segmentare known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may applyto a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone language s and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic tran scriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of alanguage.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots(词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principalmeaning.affixes(词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, butdo not change its part of speech.derivational affixes(派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both aword and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largestgrammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combinedinto new words are said to be morphological rules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes offorming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes andaffixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and boundmorphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications ofmorphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of bothfunction and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words whilederivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in aconstruction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements withina sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at anylevel within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis (标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression,derived from deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. Theyare used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deepstructures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meaningsof sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the o rder of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deepstructures? How differently are they generated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation(外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguisticexpression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of themeaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into itscomponents.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items,but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusiveword and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy(同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? Andhow does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory ofsemantic theory in defining meaning of words?。
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.第二课音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology iscalled phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occursin the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled…morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that governthe formation of sentences.categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization prope rties, is calleddeep structure or D- structure.structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationshipbetween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a morespecific word.第六课语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence ina real situation of communication, or simply in a context.act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them studyPhonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology: It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a languageSyntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of languageThe important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist Why 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别为什么Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone How is it different from a phoneme how are allophones related to a phonemePhone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or business activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: un-meaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach or languageunhappy: not happy2)prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medically induced abortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain w ith examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The morecommonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5.orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6.part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1. What does pragmatics study How does it differ from traditional semantics答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified What is the illocutionary point of each type答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, . when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, . apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.3. What are the four maxims of the CP Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression.② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.。
学完英语语言学的感想和收获
学完英语语言学的感想和收获
学习英语语言学可以为英语学习者和语言学爱好者带来许多收获,以下是一些可能的感想和收获:
1. 深入理解英语语言的结构和语法:学习英语语言学可以了解英语语言的结构和语法规则,有助于更好地理解和运用英语。
2. 增强对语言学习的兴趣:英语语言学是一门有趣的学科,通过学习,可以更好地了解语言的本质和意义,从而增强对语言学习的兴趣。
3. 提高英语水平:学习英语语言学可以提高英语水平,更好地掌握英语语言的基本规则和技巧,有助于提高听、说、读、写的综合能力。
4. 丰富语言知识:学习英语语言学可以了解许多不同的语言知识和文化,有助于更好地理解英语和其他语言之间的差异和共同点。
5. 培养批判性思维:学习英语语言学需要批判性思维,需要对语言规则和概念进行深入思考和分析,有助于培养批判性思维。
学习英语语言学可以为英语学习者和语言学爱好者带来许多收
获,有助于更好地理解和运用英语语言,提高语言能力和文化素养。
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简洁英语语言学知识点汇总1Introduction Whatis linguistics?①t ry to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②l inguistics studies not any particular language but languagein general;③s cientific study because based on systematic investigation oflinguistic data.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic. phonetics Study the sounds used in linguistic studyphonology How sounds put together and convey meaning morphology The way symbols representing sounds are arrangedand combined to form wordssyntax Rules governing the combination of wordssemantics The study of meaningpragmatics Study the meaning in contextAbove are major or core branches of linguistics;Following are linguistics link with other disciplines.sociolinguistics language and society psycholinguisticsHowinfant acquire mother tongue,processinformationlanguage and brainApplied linguistics Applied to the recovery oflanguage,language acquisitionSome important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptiveAims to lay down rules for“ correct & standard ”whatever occurs in thelanguage people use should bedescribed and analyzed)synchronicdiachronicThe description of a languageThe description of a languageat some point of timeas it changes through time① Difficult to describe the changes that have taken placein its historical development;② Synchronic description are often thought of as beingdescriptions of a language in its current existence.speech writingdescriptiveDescribe and analyze thelanguage actuallyuse(modern linguists believe thatSpeech is prior to writing:①writing system is always “invented ”by the users to record the speech when the need arises;②speech plays a greater role in terms of amount of conveying information;③ speech is always the way native speaker acquire their mother tongue while writing is learn and taught in school;④spoken language reveals more feature of human speech,whichis authentic while written language is only the revised record of speech.Langue 语言Parole语言The realization of language in Abstract linguistic system;actual use;Concrete;Relatively stable Vary from person to person &situation to situationProposed by Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century:parole is a mass of linguistic facts,to abstract langue from parole.competence performanceThe actual realization of this The ideal user ’s knowledge ofknowledge in linguisticthe rules of his languagecommunication. proposed by American linguist, Similar to Saussure,whatlinguists should study is the ideal speaker ’s competence,notthe performance.Difference:Saussure took sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social convention;whileChomsky looks at psychological point and to him competence isa property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive;Descriptive;written language is primary;Spoken language is primary;Force language into a Trying to set up a universalLatin-based framework;frameworkModern linguistics begin from the publication of Sassure’sbook course in general linguisticsWhat is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsicconnection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal &human communication are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(exceptonomatopoetic and compound words)②p roductivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signalby its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures.At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level ofsystem(carp& park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤c ultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have tobe taught and learned.(language is cultural transmitted[language notmutually intelligible] while animal call system is geneticallytransmitted)Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each otherbut actually overlapping to some degree:①d escriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionand Supply information about the user ’s feeling,preference,prejudicesvalue, will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. Howcan I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structuralRoman Jakobson：six elemenslinguist (function)of a speech:意动 ) context -referential Addresser -emotive ( 动机 ) addressee -conative( message-poetic contact -phaticcommunion code- metalinguisticBritish linguistic Halliday:①ideational function( 语篇功能 )[included descriptive & expressivefunctin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to coherewithin themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;what is phonetics?The study of phonic mediumof language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.Articulatory phonetics(发音语言学)Longest Three branches Auditory phonetics(听觉语言学)Acoustic phonetics(声学语言学)organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉 )Nasal cavity（鼻腔）简洁英语语言学知识点汇总Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsVocal glotorthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowcords tisInternational phonetic alphabet:letter ai→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]lun h Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符 )[p it] [spit]gh→aspiration[phonetician more interested in]classification of English speech soundsLabio-Dental Alveloar VelarBilabialdental Palatal Glottal（齿（齿龈（软Total（双唇音）（唇齿（腭音）（喉音）音）音）腭）obstruction音）StopsVL p f t k (闭塞音)PartialVD b v d g obstructionFricativeVL o s f h （摩擦音）omplete at firstelease slowly with VD d z gartial obstructionAffricatesVL tf tf（塞擦音）VD dg dgNasalsVD m n n （鼻音）LiquidsVD L,r（流音）GlidesVDwj（滑音）Monophthongs ：closeSemi-closeSemi-openfrontI: Ie centrale:ebackU: uC:openae a^D a:phonologyphonology & phoneticsP h o n o l o g y v s p h o n e t i c sphone phoneme allophonePhoneticSpeech soundsphonemic contrastcomplementary distributionminimal pairsome rules in phonology Sequential rules assimilation rule deletion rulePhonological featuresthat occur above the level of segments)suprasegmental features(phonemicunitDark l &Pill bill Stress : N & v[p][clear lProducedForm patters &Tone ： 四声Different phonesGovern the combination of representinga phonemein Intonation： diffrenty convey different meaning even the sentences unchangedsounds, convey meaningfeatures &3.Morphologydifferent phonetic. Word begin with a [l] orenvironmentGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure[r],nextsound must be a vowelWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseAssimilate one sound toanother by copying a feature Root: believeof sequential phoneme,makingStem: believable (除去全部的语法成份 , 留下词根和派生成份 )Base ： unbelievable (un two phones similar的词基 )Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of wordsPrefix:change meaningTo tell us when a sound is to be deletedalthough it is orthographicallySuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:① Clipping （shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation [changeof part of speech]editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sitButcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③ conversion(functional shift):N-v v-n a-v a-n ④acronyms [pronouncedas words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM) APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words→objects Limitations:√N ×ADJ ADV V√Concrete×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)Contextualism简洁英语语言学知识点汇总Firth。
语言学知识总结
TEM-8 语言学知识复习总结重要概念梳理CNU 张旭ZX第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds andmeaning）3.多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4.移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3. 3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions5. 5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6. 6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguisticl 语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
英语语言学-语言学知识点
定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.
Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:
3. Design feature 定义特征
语言学知识点
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I 语言学导论
II 语言学主要分支学科
III 语言学的流派和理论
design feature of language （语言的定义特征） Language Families (世界语言分类) important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围)
Arbitrariness（任意性）
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Duality(二层性)
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Creativity/Productivity(创造性)
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Displacement（移位性）
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Cultural Transmission(文化传递性)
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1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 举例： 书, book, livre 喜欢，like，aimer
Duality（二层性）:
定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.
学习英语语言学心得体会
学习英语语言学心得体会作为一名英语专业的学生，我深刻认识到英语语言学的重要性。
在学习的过程中，我不断感受到语言学对于英语学习的支持和帮助。
在这里，我想分享一些自己的学习心得体会，希望能够给英语学习者一些帮助和启示。
一、学习语言学理论是必要的学习语言学理论对于英语学习者来说是必要的，因为它是我们了解语言的规律和本质的基础。
在学习语法、词汇等方面的知识之前，我们首先应该知道语言的本质和特性。
只有了解了语言的规律和本质，才能更好地理解和掌握英语。
在语言学理论的学习中，我们需要注意的是理论的应用和实践。
只有将理论知识与实践相结合，才能更好地掌握语言学的知识。
二、注重读写训练在英语学习中，读写训练也是非常重要的环节。
通过大量的阅读和写作，我们可以更好地掌握英语语言的运用技巧，同时也可以增强我们的语言表达能力。
在阅读方面，我们可以选择一些具有一定难度的英文原版书籍或者相关话题的英文文章进行阅读。
在阅读的过程中，我们可以逐渐提高自己的阅读能力和理解能力。
在写作方面，我们可以从简单的单词和短语开始，逐步扩大篇幅和难度。
在写作的过程中，我们要注重细节和思维逻辑，多结合语法和语言学知识进行写作。
三、多听多说训练口语在英语学习中，口语的重要性也是不容忽视的。
通过多听多说训练口语，我们可以提高我们的口语表达能力，同时也可以加深我们的口音和语感。
在听说训练中，我们可以选择一些英语新闻场景或者其他相关话题进行听说训练。
在训练中，我们要注重语音语调和语言表达的流畅度。
只有通过大量的听说训练，我们才能提高我们的口语水平。
四、注重实践与应用在英语学习中，实践和应用也是非常重要的环节。
我们要尽可能地将所学知识应用到实际生活中去，只有这样才能真正地加深我们的学习体验和理解。
在实践和应用方面，我们可以选择一些相关的英语活动或者课外实践，尝试用英语进行交流和表达。
只有通过实践和应用，我们才能更好地理解和掌握英语。
总之，学习英语语言学是一项长期而具有挑战性的任务。
大学英语语言学教程知识点
大学英语语言学教程知识点英语语言学知识点.语言学 LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.2.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
3.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system ofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性Duality双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission文化传递（l）arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for languageto have an unlimited source of expressions（2）ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.（3）DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷ DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.（5）Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we haveto be taught and learned the detailsof any language system, this showed that language is culturally transmitted, not by instinct, animals are bornwith the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.4.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user' s knowledge of the rules of his language.5.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语语言学总结
第一章All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。
Language is a means of verbal communication.Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征Design Features:Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。
1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。
Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according tothe grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结构的方法。
3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性Duality（二层性）:is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed ofelements of the secondary level and each of the two levelshas its own principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
语言学概论知识汇总(英文)
第一章Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language：Language is a system of vocal (and written) symbols with meaning attached that is used forhuman communication of thoughts and feelings.2.Design features of language(语言的普遍特征)：①.Arbitrariness 任意性：The forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry②.Duality 二重性：Human language has two levels of structures: the primary meaningful level of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences and the secondary meaningless level of sounds. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③.Creativity 创造性：Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.④.Displacement移位性：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.3.Functions of language1)Informative function2)Interpersonal function人际功能3)Performative (行为) function4)Emotive function5)Phatic (寒暄) function6)Recreational function7)Metalingual function（元语言功能）指用语言去说明或解释语言的功能4.Main branches of linguistics：Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics微观) and interdisciplinary（跨领域、跨学科）fields of linguistics (macrolinguistics宏观)1) Main branches of linguistics:(1) Phonetics发音学，语音学;(2) Phonology;（音位学、语音体系）(3) Morphology 词法/ Lexicology词汇学;(4) Syntax句法;(5) Semantics语义学(6) Pragmatics语用学：研究特定情境中的特定话语，在不同的语言交际环境中如何理解和运用语言支。
教资英语语言学知识整理总结
教资英语语言学知识整理总结Linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure and function of language. It has been an integral part of my English teaching curriculum, helping students understand the complexity of communication.The study of phonetics and phonology has been pivotal in teaching pronunciation. By understanding the sounds of language and the patterns they form, students can improve their spoken English significantly.Morphology, the study of word structure, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial for building a solid foundation in grammar. These concepts help students construct sentences that are both meaningful and grammatically correct.Semantics, the study of meaning, and pragmatics, which explores how context influences meaning, are essential for understanding the subtleties of language. They allow students to interpret and convey messages accurately.Discourse analysis, examining language beyond the sentence level, has been instrumental in teaching students how to construct coherent paragraphs and essays. It helps them organize their thoughts logically and effectively.The sociolinguistic perspective, which looks at howlanguage varies with different social groups, has broadened students' understanding of language diversity and its impact on communication.Psycholinguistics, the study of language processing in the mind, has been a valuable tool in teaching reading comprehension and language acquisition strategies.Finally, the application of linguistics in teaching English as a second language has been transformative. It has provided a scientific basis for teaching methods, ensuring that instruction is both effective and efficient.In conclusion, the integration of linguistic knowledge into English teaching has enriched the learning experience, equipping students with a deeper understanding of the language and enhancing their communicative skills.。
英语语言学知识点整理
英语语言学知识点整理一、语言与语言学1、语言是什么？语言是一种符号系统，它由语音、词汇、语法和语用规则等构成。
2、语言学是什么？语言学是研究语言及其规律的科学，是社会科学的一门重要学科。
3、语言学的分支学科有哪些？语言学可以分为语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学等分支学科。
二、语音学与音系学1、语音学是什么？语音学是研究语音的学科，主要研究语音的物理属性、发音机制和语音的变化规律。
2、音系学是什么？音系学是研究语言的音系系统的学科，它的是语言的音位、音素、音节、语素等基本单位以及它们之间的组合关系和变化规律。
3、语音和音系的关系是什么？语音是音系的具体表现形式，而音系则是语音的基础和框架。
语音受到个人的发音和语境的影响，而音系则是一种抽象的概念，它是语言社团所共同遵守的规则。
三、句法学1、句法学是什么？句法学是研究句子的结构和规律的学科。
它主要的是词类、句子成分的构成和它们之间的组合关系。
2、句法学的核心概念有哪些？句法学的核心概念包括：词类、句子成分、句法关系、句型等。
3、常见的句法结构有哪些？常见的句法结构包括：简单句、复合句、并列句、复合并列句等。
四、语义学1、语义学是什么？语义学是研究语言意义的学科，主要研究词义、短语意义、句子意义和语篇意义等。
2、语义的分类有哪些？语义可以分为词汇意义、语法意义和语用意义。
词汇意义是指词汇的基本意义，语法意义是指词汇在句子中的组合关系和变化规律，语用意义是指词汇在特定语境中的特殊意义。
3、语义关系有哪些？语义关系包括：同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系等。
同义关系是指两个或多个词义相同或相似的词语之间的关系，反义关系是指两个或多个词义相反的词语之间的关系，上下义关系是指一个词所表达的概念是另一个词所表达的概念的一部分。
语言学知识点整理语言学是一门研究人类语言的学科，涉及语言的各个方面，包括语言的结构、使用、习得和进化等。
以下是一些常见的语言学知识点：1、语言与言语：语言是指一种符号系统，是人们用来表达思想、情感和意愿的工具。
英语语言学语言学知识点
英语语言学语言学知识点语言学是一门研究语言的学科。
它涵盖了多个领域，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学和语言变化等。
下面将简要介绍一些语言学的重要知识点。
一、语音学（Phonetics）语音学是研究语音的学问。
它关注语音的产生、传播和感知等方面。
在语音学中，语音被分为音素（phoneme）和音位（allophone）。
音素是语言中最小的语音单位，可以在语言中起到区分意义的作用。
而音位是相同意义的不同实现方式，即同一音素的不同发音形式。
在语音学中，还有一些重要概念，如元音（vowel）和辅音（consonant）。
元音是语音学中最基本、最重要的音类，它们的发音不受任何阻塞或摩擦的干扰。
而辅音则需要通过口腔或喉头的阻塞或摩擦才能产生。
二、语音语调学（Phonology）语音语调学是研究语音和语调现象的学问。
它研究语音和语音的组织方式和相互关系。
在语音语调学中，音位和音位组成规则是核心概念之一、音位组成规则决定了在一个语言中哪些音位可以成为合法的音节。
此外，在语音语调学中还有音变（phonological variation）的概念。
音变指的是在其中一种语言中，一个特定音位的发音方式会随着不同的语音环境而发生变化的现象。
音变是语言变化的一种重要表现。
三、语法学（Grammar）语法学是研究语言的结构和规则的学问。
在语法学中，句子是一个重要的研究对象。
句子结构可以划分为短语（phrase）和句子成分（sentence constituents），如名词短语、动词短语和介词短语等。
语法学还涉及到句子的成分顺序和组成规则。
在语法学中，句法树（syntactic tree）是一种图形表示方式，用于描述句子的结构。
句法树由句子的各个成分和它们之间的关系构成。
四、语义学（Semantics）语义学是研究词汇和句子意义的学问。
它关注词语和句子的语义性质、意义的产生机制以及词义的转换等。
在语义学中，可以通过语义角色（semantic role）和逻辑关系（logical relation）来描述词语和句子之间的关系。
英语语言学总结与体会
英语语言学总结与体会英语语言学是研究英语语言的结构、历史、语义、语法及其使用的学科。
在学习英语语言学的过程中，我从中获得了许多收获和体会。
首先，在学习英语语言学的过程中，我深刻理解了语言是一种复杂的系统，它不仅仅是为了交流而存在，还是反映文化、思维方式和社会结构的工具。
通过研究英语的音韵、形态、句法和语义等方面，我认识到语言的规则和结构是如何构成一个完整的系统的。
这使我对语言的使用更加有逻辑性和系统性的认识。
其次，学习英语语言学也使我对英语的历史和变化有了更深入的了解。
通过研究英语的发展历程，我意识到语言是一个活跃的、不断变化的实体。
英语的发展历程中经历了许多变化，从古英语到中古英语再到现代英语，每个阶段都有其独特的语法和词汇特点。
这使我明白了语言是如何受到历史、文化和社会变迁的影响的。
此外，学习英语语言学还让我对语言的语用学有了更深入的理解。
语用学研究的是语言在特定情境下的使用。
通过学习语言在不同语境中的意义和功能，我开始更加注重语境对语言理解和交际的影响。
我认识到语言的意义不仅仅取决于词汇和语法规则，还取决于上下文和语用因素。
最后，学习英语语言学还让我对语言学研究的方法和技巧有了更深刻的认识。
通过学习语言学的研究方法和技巧，我学会了如何进行语言数据的收集和分析，如何运用统计方法进行语言研究。
这些技能和知识使我能够更好地理解和解读语言现象，提高自己的语言分析和研究能力。
总而言之，学习英语语言学是一次丰富的学习体验。
通过学习英语语言学，我不仅提高了对英语语言的理解和运用能力，也增长了对语言和文化的认识。
这将对我未来的学习和工作产生积极的影响。
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英语语言学总结
简介
英语语言学是对英语语言进行科学研究的学科领域。
它涉及语音学、语法学、
语义学、语用学等多个方面，对于了解英语的起源、演变以及语言结构和功能都具有重要意义。
本文将对英语语言学进行一些总结和概述，介绍其中一些重要的概念和理论。
语音学
语音学是研究语音的学科，它主要关注语音的产生、传播和听觉等方面。
在英
语语言学中，语音学起着重要的作用，它帮助我们了解英语中不同音素（phoneme）的发音规律和特征。
在语音学中，音位（phoneme）是指语音的最
小功能单位，而音素（phone）则是对特定发音的描述。
通过了解音位和音素的差异，我们可以更好地理解英语中的发音规则和口音变化。
语法学
语法学研究语言的句法结构和规则，包括句子成分、词法、语序等。
英语语法
学主要关注英语句子的结构和语法规则。
通过学习英语语法，我们可以了解英语句子构成的基本规则和语言运用中的一些常见现象。
常见的语法概念包括主谓宾结构、时态、语态等。
语义学
语义学研究语言的意义和词义，包括词汇的意义、句子的意义以及语言的歧义等。
在英语语义学中，我们探讨英语词汇的意义差异、词义的转化和词汇搭配等。
通过学习英语语义学，我们可以更准确地理解英语中的词汇和句子的意义，并避免产生理解上的困惑。
语用学
语用学研究语言的交际功能和使用情境，包括言语行为、话语的指称和暗示、
对话结构等。
在英语语用学中，我们研究英语中的礼貌用语、委婉语、修辞手法等。
通过学习英语语用学，我们可以更好地理解英语中的社交规则和交际方式，提高我们的语言运用能力。
英语语言学的意义
英语语言学的研究对于我们了解和使用英语具有重要的意义。
它帮助我们理解
英语的起源、发展和演变，揭示了英语语言结构和功能的本质。
通过学习英语语言
学，我们可以更好地掌握英语的发音、词汇、语法和语用等方面的知识，提高我们的英语语言能力。
此外，英语语言学还对翻译、教学、翻译和语言政策等领域有着重要的影响。
结论
通过对英语语言学的总结，我们对英语语言的研究有了更深刻的认识。
英语语
言学的研究涉及多个学科领域，包括语音学、语法学、语义学和语用学等。
这些学科研究帮助我们更好地理解英语的发音规则、句子结构、词义和交际方式。
通过学习英语语言学，我们可以提高我们的英语语言技能，更准确有效地使用英语。
同时，英语语言学的研究也对其他领域如翻译、教学和语言政策等有着重要的影响。