语义学

Words that belong to the same semantic class are in the same semantic field. Let us look at some more examples of semantic fields: (1) vehicle: car, lorry, truck, coach, van, motor-scooter. (2) building: factory, hospital, house, chΒιβλιοθήκη Baidurch (3) vegetable: spinach, cauliflower, cabbage, pepper, onion, tomato, cucumber (4) walk: amble, stroll, saunter, wander, stride, strut, pace, parade, tramp, ramble (5) run: race, dash, scamper, scurry, scuttle, scramble, dart, bolt
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(1)
Antonymy
Complementary antonyms (2) Gradable antonyms (3) Relational opposites Ex. P140 Group discussion Ex. Look at the following synonyms a. cast, throw, chuck

The Pragmatic Approach Sentence meaning/ utterance meaning, e.g. The room is so stuffy here. My watch has stopped again. We notice that if communication is to proceed smoothly, both the speaker and the hearer have to cooperate with each other. A large part of cooperative behavior can be explained in terms of mutual presentation of face. Face, in sociolinguistics, is defined as “the public image that the speaker presents to the rest of the world”.
Semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards Look at the figure in Page 129, Ogden and Richards saw the relationship between words and things as a triangle. The „symbol‟ is linguistic element-the word, sentence, etc., and the „referent‟, the object in the world of experience, while „thought or reference‟ is concept. According to the theory there is no direct link between symbol and referent (between language and the world) as is indicated by the dotted line, -the link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds.

3. The definition theory Linguists try to establish definitions of the meanings of words. Problems (p.125) Circularity; Linguistic knowledge vs. encyclopedic knowledge; Context Leech’s seven types of meaning Allen‟s three kinds of meaning (p.127)

Polysemy and Homonymy Polysemy is a case in which one word has a number of senses or variants of a single meaning. For example, Neck: (1) part of garment (2) parts of bottle (3) narrow strip of land Homonymy is a case in which words with different meanings sharing the same form, Bank; bore (to make a hole); stick
Semantics
Chapter Five
What is semantics? In linguistics, semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language. Unfortunately, “meaning” covers a variety of aspects of language and there is no general agreement about what meaning is and how it should be defined.

The Functional Approach This approach emphasizes the social aspect of language and views language as “social semiotic”. The functional components of the semantic system: Ideational, individual experience Interpersonal, attitudes and judgments Textual, verbal and nonverbal, situational environment

R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Semantic field The basic assumption underlying the theory of semantic field is that words do not exist in isolation: rather, they form different semantic fields, such as an „animal‟ field which contains all kinds of words that denote animals, or a „cooking‟ field which includes various words related to cooking, and so on.
b. c.
Gentleman, man, chap Statesman, politician
Meronymy and Hyponymy Meronymy is used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. Hyponymy is used to refer to a specificgeneral semantic relationship between lexical items. Hyponymy involves the notion of meaning inclusion. The meanings of a hyponymy and its co-hyponyms are “included” in the meaning of their superordinate.

Context and behaviourism Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context——elements closely linked with language behaviour. This viewpoint was strengthened by Bloomfield. S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill‟s hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill express this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s.

Here are a few examples that require more than a semantic analysis to reveal the intended meaning of the text‟s words and phrases, but where the pragmatic meaning is perfectly clear: 'Quick! Fire!' (and you know you must run). 'Are you going into town?' (and you know it's a request for the person to come with you). 'I promise to be good.' (and you don't expect a repeat of the bad deed). 'Another pint...?' (and you know you've already had one).

Some views on meaning 1.The referential theory A linguistic sign derives its meaning from that which refers to something in the reality. Notes: two challenges 2.The representational theory Language in general and words in particular conjure in our minds pictures of the things, happenings and ideas. Difficulty: function words like a, an, the


Synonymy and Antonymy
True synonyms are rare. In most cases, they may differ in one or more of the following aspects. Difference in origin Difference in the shades of meaning Difference in socio-expressive meaning Difference in stylistic meaning Difference in collocation and distribution