语言学复习重点

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C h a p t e r1绪论
1. What is linguistics 什么是语言学
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)
The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）
The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）
The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）
The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）
The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）
The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）
The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）
The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.
Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）
3. Some important distinctions in linguistics
语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写
If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down
rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.
Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a
diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.
Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are
still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.
Langue and parole 语言和言语
The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what
linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
is language 语言的定义
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.
5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.
Arbitrariness 语言的随意性
Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.
Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.
Productivity 语言的创造性
Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
Duality 语言的二重性
The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.
Displacement 语言的移位性
Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.
Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学
1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介
Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is
more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.
For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.
The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.
2．What is phonetics什么是语音学
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

There are three branches of phonetics. They are:
Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speaker’s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.
Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.
Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which
speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
3. Organs of speech 发音器官
The pharyngeal cavity咽腔 the throat
The oral cavity 口腔 the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nose
The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.
Lying across the glottis (声门) are the vocal cords (声带). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound.
The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.
representation of speech sounds –broad and narrow transcriptions语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标
IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标
There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标).
实例：
对pit/spit中p音的比较：
pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]
spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]
对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：
Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]
Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]
Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~] Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II] of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类
a)Classification of English consonants
英语辅音的分类
按发音方式分
Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
Fricative 擦音：[f] [v] [s] [z] [W] [T] [s] [V] [h]
Affricate 塞擦音：[tF][dV]
Liquid流音：[l] [r]
Nasal鼻音：[m] [n] [N]
Glide滑音：[w] [j]
按发音部位分
Bilabial双唇音：[p] [b] [m] [w]
Labiodental唇齿音：[f] [v]
Dental齿音：[W] [T]
Alveolar齿龈音：[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]
Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]
Velar软腭音：[k] [g] [N]
Glottal声门音：[h]
B) Classification of English vowels
英语元音的分类
按舌头在口中的位置分：
Front vowel前元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a]
Central vowel中元音：[[:] [[] [Q]
Back vowel后元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R] [a:]
按口形的大小分：
Close vowel闭元音：[i:] [i] [u:] [u]
Semi-close vowel半闭元音：[e] [[:]
Open vowel开元音：[A] [a]
Semi-open vowel半开元音：[[] [R:] [Q] [R] [a:]
按唇形是否为圆分
Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a] [[:] [[] [Q] [a:]
rounded vowel圆唇元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R]
按语音的长短分
Long vowel长元音[i:] [[:][a:] [u:] [R:]
Short vowel短元音[i] [e] [A] [a] [[] [Q] [u] [R]
在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：[ei] [ai] [[u] [a u] [Ri ] [i[] [e[] [u[]
6. Phonology 音系学
Phonology and phonetics 音系学和语音学
Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.
Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.
语音学研究人类所有的语言。

音系学研究某种特定语言的语音系统。

Example:
单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。

所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。

音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。

7. Phone, phoneme, and allophone 语音（音素）、音位、音位变体
Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。

语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并不一定能区分意义。

Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合
体，音位具有区别意义的作用。

一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素）。

按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p/ /t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p] [t].
The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different
phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音
环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。

contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立、互补
分布、最小对立对
Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might
form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not
form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme.
相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。

两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们
在意义上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。

The former is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.
音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。

The latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments.
互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的[p]和stop 中不送气的[p]。

A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.
确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。

如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。

为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如[pen]和[ben]。

9. Some rules in phonology 几条音系规则
A) sequential rules 系列规则
The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.
在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。

重要的规则：
I.如果单词以[l] 或[r] 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude, last, leap
II.如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p塞擦音[tF][dV]和咝音[s] [z] [F] [V] 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach 变复数为teaches[ti:tFiz]。

IV.制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。

B)assimilation rules 同化规则
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。

重要的规则：
I.元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。

如bean/ green 中的[i:]音。

II.在一个单词中，鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。

如correct –incorrect。

III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。

如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。

C) deletion rules 省略规则
The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。

重要的规则：
I. 如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。

如sign中的[g]音不发音。

而在加了后缀的signature中，[g]却要发音的。

10. Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征：重音、声调和语调
Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.
区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。

出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。

它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。

主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。

A) Stress 重音
重要的规则：
I.一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。

如import。

II.英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。

如hotdog。

B)Tone 声调
英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。

C)Intonation 语调
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。

English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.
英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。

最常用的是前三种。

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学
Definition定义
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.
形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。

前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。

1. Morpheme 语素
The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。

The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.
语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。

2. Types of morphemes 语素的分类
a) Free morphemes 自由语素
Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.
自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。

b) Bound morphemes 黏着语素
Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。

3. Types of bound morphemes 黏着语素的分类
Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。

A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。

Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折词缀和派生词缀
Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:
屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。

现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：
-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数
-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数
-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时
-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时
-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级
-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级
-‘s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。

这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。

能够加上
一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。

词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。

实例：
Tolerate 词根toler- ＋词缀-ate
Quickly 自由语素quick ＋词缀-ly
Carelessness 自由语素care ＋词缀-less 形成的派生词careless ＋词缀-ness Affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀和后缀Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.
前缀改变词干的意思，但通常不改变原词的词性。

“be-” 和“en (m)-”是例外。

Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
后缀加在词干的末尾，改变原词的意思，并且在多数情况下，改变原词的词性。

4. Morphological rules 形态学规则
Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.
形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。

学习者必须掌握这些规则，但又要注意不能过分概括这些规则，以免生造出不存在的单词。

5. Types of compound words 复合词的类型
Noun + noun 名词＋名词如：handbook, sunshine
Adjective +noun 形容词＋名词如：highway, sweetheart
Adjective +noun +ed 形容词＋名词＋ed 如：white-haired, green=eyed
Verb +noun 动词＋名词如：pickpocket, driveway
Adverb +noun 副词＋名词如：downtown, upgrade
Noun +verb 名词＋动词如：toothpick, snowfall
Verb +adverb 动词＋副词如：follow-up, kick-off
Noun +adjective 名词＋形容词如：world-famous, life-long
-ing form +noun -ing形式＋名词如：dining-room, reading-glasses
Other forms 其它形式如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots, thank-you note
of compounds
1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or
without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。

如armchair, follow-up, thunder bird
2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
在语法上，复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。

如icy-cold是
形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。

而例外的情况有：
follow-up, crackdown, kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick, snowfall, facelift都是名词而不是动词。

3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not
always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.
在语意上，复合词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的
意义的总和。

如hotdog, greenhouse等。

4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
在语音上，复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。

这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing
形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。

如running dog 重音在running上，表
示“走狗”这一-ing形式＋名词的复合词。

如重音在dog上，则表示running用
来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。

Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学
is Syntax
Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.
句法学研究语言的句子结构。

该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。

句子是根据一种
特定的排列词的方式构成的。

排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。

合乎语
法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。

句法是一个规则系统。

2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统
Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is
considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.
The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。

句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。

任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统（称为语言能力）。

任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。

3. The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成
A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject（主语）and its predicate（谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。

一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。

The referring expression（被指称的对象）, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject
is usually a noun or a noun phrase. The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb,
informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。

主语通常由名词或名词
词组构成。

谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。

谓语通常由限定动词
或动词词组构成。

限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，
限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。

4．Types of sentence 句子的类型
a)The simple sentence 简单句
A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。

b)The coordinate sentence 并列句
A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”but””or”.
并列句包含两个子句，由and, but, or 等并列连词连接。

c)The complex sentence 复合句
A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. That is, the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded
clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.
复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。

复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。

被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句。

5. The linear word order of a sentence 句子的线性词序
When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile, they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.
我们说出或写下一个句子，其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。

同时，对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。

句子中词语的这种有次序的排列表明，句子的结构是线性的。

6. The hierarchical structure of a sentence 句子的层次结构
The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly structured. Sentence
structure is hierarchical in nature.
组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。

句子实际上是有层次结构的。

7. Tree diagrams of sentence structure 句子结构树形图
The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure.
句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。

见课文67－70页。

In addition, the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels.
另外，句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。

见课文71页。

8. Lexical categories 词类
Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech. A language has major and minor lexical categories. Major lexical categories are open categories that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for. English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories.
所有的词都有某种属性，即词性。

词可以分为主要词类和次要词类。

主要词类不断有新词加入，它是开放词类，而次要词类是封闭的，因为这类词的词项是固定的，不允许有新词加入。

英语有四个主要词类和六个次要词类。

主要词类：
Noun (N) 名词：student Verb (V) 动词：like
Adjective (Adj) 形容词：tall Adverb (Adv) 副词：loudly
次要词类：
Determiner (Det) 限定词：the, a, this, his Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词：can, do, will
Preposition (Prep) 介词：in, at, over Pronoun (Pron) 代词：he, she, us, mine
Conjunction (Conj) 连词：and, or, but, while Interjection (Int) 感叹词：oh, ah, eh
9. Phrasal categories 词组类型
Four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP), and adjective phrase (AP).
NP and VP are essential components of a sentence, comprising the subject and predicate.
Important note: NP just contain a noun, VP just contain a verb, PP just contain a preposition and AP just contain an adjective.
通常讨论的词组类型有四种，分别是：名词词组，动词词组，介词词组和形容词词组。

名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组，因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。

重要：一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。

10. Grammatical relations 语法关系
The structural and logical function relations of constituents are
called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In English and many other languages, the subject usually precedes the
verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. Strictly speaking, this statement is true only in terms of the structural subject（结构主语） and the structural object（结构宾语）. The logical subject （逻辑主语）and the logical object（逻辑宾语） may have different positions.语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。

从结构上看，英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前，宾语往往出现在动词止回。

这种置动词之前的主语叫结构主语，置动词之后的宾语叫结构宾语。

结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语，而意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。

逻辑主语是实施者，而逻辑宾语是受事者。

逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置可以同形式主语和形式宾语在句子中的位置相同，也可以不同。

如英语被动句中的形式主语是逻辑宾语，而形式宾语是逻辑主语。

11. Phrasal structure rules 短语结构规则
The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.
短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。

Example 1:
S →NP VP. The arrow is read as “consist of”, or “is rewritten
as” 。

The rule is: a sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
在本例中，箭头读作“包含”或“重写为”。

这样的规则就读作：一个句子包含或可以重写为一个名词词组和一个动词词组。