语言学

《语言学》考试说明（英教）
2012年5月班级：10英教1-2班
考试时间：2012-6-21
考核方法：闭卷
时间：120分钟
题型：
I. 单项选择(1’*15=15’)
II. 定义(2’*5=10’)
III. 正误判断’*10=15’)
IV. 术语比较(4’*4=16’)
V. 填空’*10=15’)
VI. 问答(5’+8’+8’+8’=29’)
课程内容
第一章
1. 记忆
phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics
2. 概念辨析
descriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, competence vs. performance, langue vs. parole 3. 应用
1）能够判断理论语言学（即microlinguistics）与应用语言学(即macrolinguistics)各学科的研究范围；
2）能够分析各种语言现象体现的语言功能。

4. 思考
人类语言的design features包括哪些分别指什么可以结合实例对各点进行说明。

第二章
1. 记忆
phoneme, allophone, phonetics的分支
2. 概念辨析
vowels vs. consonants, phone vs. allophone vs. phoneme, phonetics vs. phonology, broad transcription vs. narrow transcription
3. 理解
1）schewa
2）suprasemental features
3）syllable structure (nucleus/peak, rhyme, coda)
4. 应用
能够根据发音部位/方式判断所描述的辅音/元音，或相反。

第三章
1. 记忆
morpheme, allomorph, morphology, root, affix
2. 运用
1）能够判断词所属的类别，如变形词/不可变形词，实词/虚词等
2）能够判断出现的function words
3）能够利用各种造词法造出新词，能够根据新词的组成方式判断属于哪种构词法。

4）能够区分屈折/派生，bound/free
5）理解free/bound与root/affix之间的关系等
3. 思考
1)屈折与派生的区别
2)word, morpheme, phoneme, syllable之间的关系
第四章
1. 记忆
Syntax, basic elements of a phrase
2. 概念辨析
Deep structure vs. surface structure
3. 应用
能够画出简单的树形图
第五章
1. 记忆
synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, polysemy, 语义三角的组成部分
2．概念辨析
denotation vs. connotation, sense vs. reference
3. 掌握
1）可以判断关于意义的观点属于哪个语言学流派
2）能够准确判断一组词语之间的关系(synomnymy, anotnymy, hyponymy, poloysemy, homonymy, hyponymy)并判断它们属于哪类具体的语义关系(如stylstic/dialectical/emotive/collocational difference?; complementary/gradable/converse antonymy)
4. 思考
成分分析法的定义及其优点。

第六章
1．记忆
pragmatics, context
2．概念辨析
pragmatics vs. semantics
3 掌握
1）能够判断一个句子的illocutionary point （如representative, directive, commissive等）
2）能够判断句子因为违反了哪条合作原则而产生隐含意义
QUESTIONS: True or false
1. The only function of language is to exchange information.
2. English is more difficult than Chinese.
3. Black English is not standard and should be reformed.
4. Children acquire their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction
5. Language operates by rule.
6. Speakers of all language employ a range of style and a set of jargons.
7. Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.
8. Language can slowly change.
Design features of language
.1 Arbitrariness
2 Duality
.3 Creativity
4 Displacement
►DESIGN FEATURES: features which help define human languages
1:arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning
Ex. desk
le bureau
la mesa
(2) arbitrariness at the syntactic level
Ex. 1-2
▪He came in and sat down.
▪He sat down and came in.
▪He sat down after he came in.
(3) arbitrariness and convention
►Onomatopoeia
►Sound sequence —— concept
Ex. A sneaky snake slips away swiftly.
DUALITY: “the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization”
1.3.3 Creativity
Alert: So are you saying that you were the best friend of the woman who was married to the man who represented your husband in divorce
André: In the history of speech, it has never been uttered before.
Neil Simon, The Dinner Party
►CREATIVITY: Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.
►DISPLACEMENT: Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
Main branches of linguistics
1.7.1 Phonetics
1.7.2 Phonology
1.7.3 Morphology
1.7.4 Syntax
1.7.5 Semantics
1.7.6 Pragmatics
Functions of language
1.5.1 Informative
1.5.2 Interpersonal function
1.5.3 Performative
1.5.4 Emotive function
1.5.5 Phatic communion
1.5.6 Recreational function
1.5.7 Metalingual function
Main branches of linguistics
1.7.1 Phonetics
1.7.2 Phonology
1.7.3 Morphology
1.7.4 Syntax
1.7.5 Semantics
1.7.6 Pragmatics
►PHONOLOGY studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
►MORPHOLOGY is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processes.
SYNTAX is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.
Syntax: a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences ►
►SEMANTICS examines how meaning is encoded in a language.
►PRAGMA TICS is the study of meaning in context.
Synchronic vs. diachronic
Saussure
►SYNCHRONIC: the study of a language at a fixed instance (usu. the present)
►DIACHRONIC: the study of a language through the course of its history
Langue vs. Parole
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
►LANGUE: language as a whole shared by a community of native speakers
►PAROLE: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterance
►LANGUE: the potential system that is available in a given society
►PAROLE: actualisation of that system by the individuals of that society
Competence vs. Performance
►COMPETENCE: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules
►PERFORMANCE: the actual use of language in concrete situations
Macrolinguistics
1.8.1 Psycholinguistics
1.8.2 Sociolinguistics
1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics
1.8.4 Computational linguistics
∙MORPHEME(词素): the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content
Morpheme:
∙NOTE: The same morphemic shapes might represent different morphemes
∙Phoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of sound
∙MORPHOLOGY (形态学): a branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed
Ex. horrify, terrify
Types of morphemes
(1) Free morphemes & bound morphemes
1:FREE MORPHEMES (自由词素): morphemes which may constitute words by themselves
2:BOUND MORPHEMES (粘附词素): dependent morphemes which must appear with at least another morpheme
ROOT(词根): the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identification
AFFIX(词缀): the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).
INFLECTIONAL AFFIXES(屈折词缀): affixes used to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word
DERIV ATIONAL AFFIXES (派生词缀): affixes used to produce new words Ex. –ness, -less, -ish, ex-
Allomorph(词素变体): concretely realized variants of a morpheme
Ex. -s～-z～-iz～-ai～-i:～-n
. Sense & reference
➢Sense(涵义): the abstract properties of an entity ———concept ——connotation
➢Reference: the concrete entities having these properties —— denotation NOTE: Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.
Ex. grammatical words like but, if; God
➢NOTE: Leech’s conceptual me aning: sense and reference
➢Sense: the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another; concerned with the intra-linguistic relations ➢Reference: the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to; concerned with the outer-linguistic relations
SEMANTICS(语义学): the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular。