论文结构及各部分的写作要求

毕业论文的结构
1．前置部分(Front Matter)：
中文封面（Cover, in Chinese）
英文题名页（Title Page, in English）
郑重声明
论文使用授权说明
目录（Contents）
英文摘要、关键词页（Abstract and Key Words, in English）
中文摘要、关键词页（Abstract and Key Words, in Chinese）
2．正文部分(Body)：
引言（Introduction）
主体（Body）
结论（Conclusion）
3．文尾部分(Back Matter)：
参考文献（Works Cited）
致谢（Acknowledgements）
附录（Appendix）
封底（Back Cover）
论文标题
1. 论文的标题应具备以下特征：
1)准确。

要做到“题与文相符”，概括文章的基本内容，揭示文章的主题。

2)醒目。

要引人注目，给人留下深刻印象。

3)新颖。

要有新鲜感。

只有作者的思想新颖，论题才能富有新意。

4)简洁。

要具有高度的概括性。

字数限制在20个字以内（一般不超过10个实
词）。

5)具体。

要具体地表达出论文的观点，切忌空泛而谈。

2. 英文标题四种结构
1)名词性词组(包括动名词) Sister Carrie’s Broken Dream
2)介词词组On the theme of Young Goodman Brown by Hawthorne
3)名词词组+介词词组A comparison between a Teacher-Centered Class and a
Students-Centered Class
4)疑问式How to Use a Computer in Managing an English Class （学术论文不建
议使用此标题方式）
有的标题由两部分组成，用冒号( ：)隔开。

一般来说，冒号前面一部分是主标题，提出文章中心或主旨。

冒号后面是副标题，补充说明主标题的内容，如研究重点或研究方法。

Charles Dickens: The Master of Critical Realism （查尔斯•狄更斯——批判现实主义大师）
Positions of Attributes and Adverbials in English and Chinese：A Comparative Study （英汉定语和状语的位置比较）
The Chinese Version of Jude the Obscure：An Outstanding Example of Artistic Recreation
（艺术再创造的范例——《无名的裘德》汉译本）
3. 标题中各词的大小写
1)名词、代词、动词、形容词、副词、从属连词(because, if, until, when…)首字
母大写
2)介词、冠词、并列连词(and, but, for…)、不定式to首字母小写。

3)标题第一个单词、最后一个单词无论词性首字母应该大写。

摘要
摘要是对全篇论文的精炼概括。

它能让读者在短时间内对论文的内容和价值作出初步判断。

摘要必须简洁明了，重点突出，层次分明，让读者高效地获取信息。

摘要一般在初稿完成后再着手撰写，因为如果不对论文有一个整体把握，是难以归纳总结、取其精华的。

中文摘要中不使用“本文”、“作者”等作为主语，应采用“对…进行了研究”、“报告了…现状”、“进行了…调查”等表达方式，一般不分段落。

摘要正文的字数为300字以内。

摘要应包括以下内容：1）研究主题/范围2）背景信息3）研究目的4）研究方法/步骤5）研究发现6）研究结论和研究所带来的启示
请阅读以下摘要（见TESOL Quarterly, 2002）：
Speaking and Writing in the University: A Multidimensional Comparison
Abstract
(1) The dozens of studies on academic discourse carried out over the past 20 years have mostly focused on written academic prose (usually the technical research article in science or medicine) or on academic lecture. (2) Other registers that may be more important for students adjusting to university life, such as textbooks, have received surprisingly little attention, and spoken registers such as study groups or on-campus service encounters have been virtually ignored. (3) To explain more fully the nature of the tasks that incoming international students encounter, this article undertake a comprehensive linguistic description of the range of spoken and written register at U. S. universities. (4) Specifically, the article describes a multidimensional analysis of register variation in the TOEFL 2000 Spoken and Written Academic Language Corpus. (5) The analysis shows that spoken registers are fundamentally different from written ones in university contexts, regardless of purpose. (6) Some of the register characterizations are particularly surprising. (7) For example, classroom teaching was similar to conversational registers in many respects, and departmental brochures and Web pages were as informationally dense as textbooks. (8) The article discusses the implications of theses findings for pedagogy and further research.
作者在第一、二句中提出了研究的主题（academic discourse）、论文关注的对象（textbooks、study groups和service encounters）和背景信息（dozens of studies … over the past 20 years、Other registers … have received surprisingly little attention, … have been virtually ignored.）；在第三句中，作者指出了研究的目的；第四句简要说明了研究的方法；第五句则是研究的发现，最后几句则是该研究发现为教学和对以后研究所带来的启示。

英文摘要常用句式
研究目的
The purpose of this thesis is to…
The primary goal of this research is to…
The chief aim of the thesis is to…
The study is intended to…
The thesis aims to…
研究主题/范围
This thesis discusses (studies, concerns, addresses, deals with, examines, explores, probes into, elaborates on)…
This thesis argues/ demonstrates that…
Subjects covered include…
Some of the specific topic discussed are…
The scope of the research covers…
研究重点
Particular attention is paid to…
There has been a focus on…
This study concentrates on…
The greatest emphasis has been on…
The primary emphasis in this thesis is on…
研究方法/步骤
The method used in this study is known as…
The procedure can be briefly described as…
The approach that has been adopted extensively is called…
Investigations on ... were carried out.
Experiments have been carried out to test the validity of…
The experiment, consisted of three steps, is described in…
The research has recorded valuable data using the newly developed method…
The fundamental features of this theory are as follows…
The theory is characterized by…
This thesis analyzes (compares)…
This thesis consists of three chapters. Chapter One gives an overview of…Chapter Two explores…Chapter Three deals with…
研究发现
It is found/indicated that
The results of the experiment indicates that…
The studies show that …
The investigation carried out by … has revealed that …
The studies throw lights on the nature of …
Examples with actual experiment demonstrate that…
研究结论
This thesis concludes that…
The author’s conclusion is that…
In conclusion,…
建议
The data/results suggest that…
Recommendations are made regarding…
Suggestions are made for further study of …
撰写摘要注意事项
1. 用词尽可能简洁。

可以用单词表达的就不用短语，可以用短语表达的就不用句子。

2. 摘要的叙述一定要客观确凿，不宜使用perhaps, maybe, likely, possibly, probably等模糊性词语，也不应该含有倾向性评论。

3. 不要过多地叙述背景知识，所提供的背景信息应该与本研究密切相关，以突出本研究的意义和创新性。

4. 不要加进编写者未来的计划和打算，诸如“有关方面的研究有待于进一步展开”等。

5. 人称：采用第三人称表达。

6. 时态：
1）说明研究目的、叙述研究内容、描述研究结果、得出研究结论、提出建议时使用一般现在时。

2）说明某课题现已取得的成果，可采用现在完成时。

3）叙述研究过程，可采用一般过去时。

7. 语态：主动语态和被动语态均可使用。

在反映客观事物，特别是介绍作者所做的工作时多使用被动语态。

在介绍研究目的和结论时多使用主动语态。

8. 句型：一般采用主谓结构的陈述句。

尽量避免以短语或从句开头，多以重要的事实开头。

关键词(Key Words)
关键词是指从论文中选取出来用以说明论文研究范围、对象、方法和中心论点的专有名词、术语和名词词组。

关键词是论文中出现频率最高的词汇，是论文论述的焦点。

关键词、标题和摘要是高度统一的。

数量一般为3-5个。

论文正文（5000词以上）：引言（约1000词）+主体（3000词以上）+结论（1000词以内）
引言（绪论）
引言一般包括以下内容：1）介绍选题的背景和研究意义，2）介绍前人的研究情况，适当加以评价或比较3）指出前期研究的空白点或提出新问题以及解决这些问题的方法与思路4）明确论文的研究对象、中心论点、研究方法和论文的整体框架。

引言不要与文献综述和摘要雷同。

在引言中，要着重论述本人选择该论题的原因、目的和意义。

评价文献时，不要漫无边际地罗列一系列著作或文章，而是要凸显自己的研究论题在其中的地位以及与它们的联系，以及本人在哪方面做了补充、发展和创新。

引言应起到介绍研究背景、引出论述主题、激发读者阅读兴趣的作用。

许多人选择在完成论文的主体之后，对自己的全文有了整体认识，再回过头来撰写论文的引言部分。

有时会出现这种情况，初稿的结论部分变成了第二稿的引言。

主体（本论）
主体是毕业论文的核心部分，一般分成三到四章来写作。

注意每一章开头要有引言段/介绍段（说明本章要研究的问题，主要内容或观点）；结尾要有结论段（总结本章内容）。

在论文主体中，作者要采取合适的论证方法，用大量的论据来论证中心论点。

一个可作为论据的具体材料，往往具有多面性，如果从不同的角度去分析，就可发掘出不同的意义。

我们要明确地解释我们的论据与论点之间的内在逻辑关系，而不是仅仅把论据列出来不加分析和说明，期待读者自己看出它们之间的联系。

例：The party is terrible. There is no alcohol.
The party is great. There is no alcohol.
论点
1. 立论要有据可依，不可主观臆断，更不要前后矛盾。

2. 论点要明确，不要论证许久，读者却不知为何而论证，尤其要避免用词模糊而产生的歧义。

3. 论点要深刻而新颖。

Six steps for making the thesis evolve
1. Formulate an idea about your subject, a working thesis.
2. See how far you can make this thesis go in accounting for evidence.
3. Locate evidence that is not adequately accounted for by the thesis.
4. Make explicit the apparent mismatch between the thesis and selected evidence, asking and answering So what?
5. Reshape your claim to accommodate the evidence that hasn't fit.
6. Repeat steps 2 through 5 several times.
Example:
In the film Educating Rita, a working-class English hairdresser (Rita) wants to change her life by taking courses from a professor (Frank) at the local university, even though this move threatens her relationship with her husband (Denny), who burns her books and pressures her to quit school and get pregnant. Frank, she discovers, has his own problems: he's a divorced alcoholic who is bored with his life, bored with his privileged and complacent students, and bent on self-destruction. The film follows the growth of Frank and Rita's friendship and the changes it brings about in their lives. By the end of the film, each has left a limiting way of life behind and has set off in a seemingly more promising direction. She leaves her constricting marriage, passes her university examinations with honors, and begins to view her life in terms of choices; he stops drinking and sets off, determined but sad, to make a new start as a teacher in Australia.
working thesis: Educating Rita celebrates the liberating potential of education
→complic ating evidence: Frank’s problems are caused (in part) by his education.
→revised thesis: Educating Rita celebrates the liberating potential of enabling (in contrast to stultifying) education
→revisited evidence: Frank’s stultifying education is associated with a smug, stale elite. Rita’s enabling education corresponds with lower-class energy and doses of “real-life”→revised thesis: Educating Rita celebrates the liberating potential of enabling education, defined as that which remains open to healthy doses of working-class, real-world infusions
→complicating evidence: Frank and Rita both end up alone and alienate.
→revised thesis: Educating Rita celebrates the liberating potential of enabling education (kept open to real-world, working-class energy) but also acknowledges its potential costs in loneliness and alienation.
论据
1. 论据和论点要统一。

如果论据在论证论点时有牵强感觉，要坚决去掉。

比如，要证明《苔丝》这部作品奠定了作者批判现实主义作家的地位，就需要提供相关的论据表现其对传统的道德、伪善的宗教、不幸的婚姻和腐朽社会的批判，而不是大段描写故事情节和人物性格。

2. 论据要有说服力，即真实可靠、典型、充分。

3. 论据的提出不能一味罗列，要注意顺序和层次，并根据需要来选择论据的类型。

比如，当需要引出论题，证明其重要性时可以援引理论或权威论述；当需要驳斥对方观点时，可以举出事例或数据指出其谬误。

论据的类型
Statistical Evidence 数据
Statistics are a primary tool for those writing in the natural and especially the social sciences. They have the advantage of greater objectivity, and, in the social sciences, of offering a broad view of a subject. Remember, though, that, like other forms of evidence, statistics do not speak for themselves; their significance must be overtly elucidated. Nor should it simply be assumed that statistics are valid representations of the reality they purport to measure
Anecdotal Evidence事例
An anecdote is a little story (a narrative), a piece of experience. Anecdotal evidence involves the close examination of particular instances, often including the writer's or researcher's own experience with whatever he or she is studying. So, for example, a historian wishing to understand the origins and development of the Latino community in a small East Coast American city might use as a large part of his or her evidence interviews conducted with local Latino residents.
Anecdotal evidence is in some ways at the opposite extreme from statistical evidence. Statistical research often attempts to locate broad trends and patterns by surveying large numbers of people and tries to arrive at reliable information by deliberately controlling the kind and amount of questions it asks. By contrast, the kind of thinking based on anecdotal evidence is less concerned with verifiable trends and patterns than with a more detailed and up-close presentation of particular instances. Authorities as Evidence 权威论断
A common way of establishing support for a claim is to invoke an authority—to call in as evidence the thinking of an expert in the subject area you are writing about. Much academic writing consists of evaluating and revising views that people have come to believe are authoritative. The building of knowledge involves in large part the ongoing consideration of who or what will be accepted as authoritative. In chapter 14 we explain how to use—rather than just include and agree with—other writers on your subject.
Empirical Evidence 经验证据
Empirical evidence is derived from experience, the result of observation and experiment, as opposed to theory. It is usually associated with the bodily senses; the word empirical means "capable of being observed, available to the senses"; the word comes from the Greek word for experience. Evidence from the sciences, for example, is heavily empirical. But in the humanities, too, analyses are based on observation—of texts, of musical scores, of art works—not just on theories.
Experimental Evidence 实验证据
Experimental evidence is a form of empirical evidence (capable of being observed). It is distinguished from other forms of evidence by the careful attention to procedure it requires. Evidence in the sciences is usually recorded in particular predetermined formats, both because methodology is important and because the primary test of validity in the sciences is that the experiment must be repeatable so that another experimenter can follow the same procedure and achieve the same results.
Textual Evidence 文本证据
We are using the term textual evidence to designate instances in which the language itself is of fundamental importance, in which the emphasis lies on how things are worded. A primary assumption in analyzing textual evidence is that the meanings of words are never simple and unambiguous. That is, the meanings of particular words cannot be assumed; they must be explained, and those explanations must be argued for. Insofar as the actual language of a document counts, you are in the domain of textual evidence.
How to use sources
Typically, inexperienced writers either use sources as answers—they let the sources do too much of their thinking—or ignore them altogether as a way of avoiding losing their own ideas. If they agree with what a source says, they say it's good, and they cut and paste the part they can use as an answer. If the source somehow disagrees with what they already believe, they say it's bad, and they attack it or—along with readings they find hard or boring—discard it.
The first step in using sources effectively is to reject the assumption that sources provide final and complete answers. If they did, there would be no reason for others to continue writing on the subject. Use the source as a point of departure, that is, use it as a stimulus to have an idea.
Guidelines for writing the research paper
1. Avoid the temptation to plug in sources as answers. Think of sources as voices inviting you into a community of interpretation, discussion, and debate.
2. Put your sources into conversation with one another, rather than limiting yourself to agreeing or disagreeing with your sources,
3. Find your own role in the Conversation.
4. Quote, paraphrase, or summarize in order to analyze. Explain what you take the source to mean, showing the reasoning that has led to the conclusion you draw from it.
Quote, paraphrase, or summarize in order to analyze—not in place of analyzing. Don't assume that either the meaning of the source material or your reason for including it is self-evident. Explain to your readers what the quotation, paraphrase, or summary of the source means. What elements of it do you find interesting, revealing, or strange? Emphasize how those affect your evolving thesis. In making a source speak, focus on articulating how the source has led to the conclusion you draw from it. Beware of simply putting a generalization and a quotation next to each other (juxtaposing them) without explaining the connection. Instead fill the crucial site between claim and evidence with your thinking.
5. Use your selections from sources as a means of raising issues and questions. As long as you consider only the source in isolation, you may not discover much to say about it. Once you begin considering it in other contexts and with other sources, you may begin to see aspects of your subject that your source does not adequately address.
6. Look for ways to develop, modify, or apply what a source has said. Apply the source in another context to qualify or expand its implications. Rather than focusing solely on what you believe your source finds most important, locate a lesser point, not emphasized by the reading, that you find especially interesting and develop it further.
7. If you challenge a position found in a source, be sure to represent it fairly. First, give the source some credit by identifying assumptions you share with it. Then, isolate the part that you intend to complicate or dispute.
8. Seek out other perspectives on the source. Your aim need not be simply to find a source that disagrees with the one that has convinced you and then switch your allegiance. Instead, you would use additional perspectives to gain some critical distance from your source. An ideal way of sampling possible critical approaches to a source is to consult book reviews on it found in scholarly journals. Once the original source is taken down from the pedestal through additional reading, there is a greater likelihood that you will see how to distinguish your views from those it offers. You may think, for example, that another source's critique of your original source is partly valid and that both sources miss things that you could point out; in effect, you referee the conversation between them.
9. When your sources disagree, consider playing mediator. Instead of immediately agreeing with one or the other, clarify areas of agreement and disagreement among them. You can mediate the conflicts among sources, look for difference within similarity and look for similarity despite difference.
结论
结论部分要包含的内容
1. 说明论文的研究目的、研究方法、研究发现/重申论文的论点，归纳正文的内容。

重申论文的论点，归纳正文的内容。

2. 说明自己研究的意义和创新点。

应注意阐明：研究问题或假设是否已经得到回答或验证；本研究成果在前期研究的基础上有何推进，做出了哪些修正、补充、证实或证伪。

3. 本研究的局限、尚未解决的问题、对未来研究的建议。

参考文献
凡引用他人的观点、数据和材料等都要在文中标明，并在文末以参考文献的形式列出来。

参考文献是论文论据的来源，是论文论点得以成立的坚实基础，能够反映出研究者的学术视野。

此外，参考文献便于研究同类问题的研究人员查阅相关资料，达到资源共享的目的。

致谢
致谢部分应以简短的语言向所有对作者完成学位论文贡献力量的单位和个人表达谢意。

致谢词要真挚、简练，既不要夸大其词，也不可轻描淡写。

致谢的对象包括以下几类：
1. 作者的论文指导教师。

2. 帮助作者获得灵感、形成构想，并为作者的论文完成提出参考意见的其他老师和同学。

3. 为作者的定量分析工作（如调查问卷等）提供方便和帮助的单位或个人。

4. 帮助作者完成技术工作（如绘图、打字等）的单位或个人。

5. 向作者提供书籍、论文等资料的单位或个人。

6. 为作者的论文写作提供支持和帮助的家人与亲朋好友。

附录
对于一些不宜放在正文中、但又是毕业设计中不可缺少的部分，或有重要参考价值的内容，可编入附录中。

例如：1) 研究方法的更深入的叙述2) 便于查读的问卷或数据分析3) 便于查读的数据、图、表等。

毕业论文的修改
广义而言，论文的修改包括论文写作过程中每一个环节的修改，修改活动贯穿整个论文写作的始终；而狭义的修改，则专指初稿完成之后的加工修改。

刚写成的论文初稿只能说是我们对自己研究成果的初步表达，而这一成果是否合理，表达是否连贯、清楚，论述是否能被读者接受，这一切都需要通过反复的审读和修改。

论文的修改实际上是一个再思考的过程。

1．中心论点是否合理。

中心论点是论文的核心，但它并不是真理，只是作者在阅读材料过程中形成的一种假设。

我们的初稿写作过程就是对这个假设的论证过程。

我们要对自己提出的论点多问几个为什么，是否能站住脚，有没有可能别人加以质疑。

有时我们需要修正中心论点，使它更为合理地反映我们的思考。

2．分论点与中心论点是否一致，分论点的表达和排序是否合适。

如果分论点是从各个侧面来说明中心论点的，就要检查分论点涉及的内容是否全面，是否紧扣主题；如果分论点是逐层深入地阐述中心论点，就要检查各个分论点是否按照由浅入深、由表及里的逻辑顺序逐层剖析。

3．论据是否充分、恰当，始终围绕论点。

如果论据显得单薄无力，就要补充新的材料；如果论据在论述论点时显得牵强，就要毫不犹豫地删掉；如果论据显得啰嗦、累赘，就要精简。

4．论证是否严密，是否合乎逻辑。

要避免由于论证不足而产生的论点、论据“两张皮”现象。

5．各章节的安排是否合理，衔接是否连贯，结构层次是否清晰，开头、中间和结尾是否各司其职，分工明确又和谐统一。

各章节、各段落之间过度是否自然，是否合乎逻辑，是否有重复或自相矛盾之处。

6．语法和拼写是否正确，措辞是否准确和简洁，标点的使用是否正确，引文多少是否合适（尤其要注意直接引文不能太多），所有引用材料是否都注明了出处，注释中的页码是否准确，参考文献的各项内容是否准确，格式是否规范。

其他注意事项
1）热处理和冷处理
热处理是指写成一部分论文后，在思路还没有中断的情况下，马上从头至尾再看一下刚写的段落，审查论点、论据、论证和语言方面的问题，进行修改。

冷处理是指论文写完后可以搁置一段时间再拿出来修改。

这样经过一段时间的调整，从论文中走出来，让自己的思路摆脱原来的思维模式，作为读者重新看待自己的论文。

2）求助良师益友
论文撰写过程中要多请教导师，获取导师的建议。

自己修改完论文之后，还应该拿给同专业的同学或朋友看一看。

有时由于自身认识水平和思维角度的限制，对自己论文中的某些毛病很难发现，而别人可以从另外的角度发现论文的不足。

进过这些改动之后，再拿给导师进一步定夺，然后根据导师的建议做最后的修改。