Saussure and Chomsky 区别
专八语言学试题【答案版本】
1. F. de. Saussure is a (n) __________linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianSwiss linguist. The founder of structural linguistics, he declared that there is only an arbitrary relationship between a linguistic sign and that which it signifies. The posthumously published collection of his lectures,Course in General Linguistics (1916), is a seminal work of modern linguistics.索绪尔，费迪南德·德：(1857-1913) 瑞士语言学家，结构主义语言的创始人，他声称在语言符号和其所指含义之间仅有一种模糊的关系。
他死后，他的讲演集出版为《普通语言学教程》（1916年），是现代语言学的开山之作2.N. Chomsky is a(n) ______linguist.Canadian B. American C. French D. SwissAmerican linguist who revolutionized the study of language with his theory of generative grammar, set forth inSyntactic Structures (1957).乔姆斯基，诺阿姆：(生于1928) 美国语言学家，他在《句法结构》（1957年）一书中所阐述的关于生成语法的理论曾使语言学研究发生突破性进展3.___________is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference totheir distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A.PhonologyB. Lexicography 词典编纂C. lexicology词典学D.Morphology词态词态学音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音系统及其分布，包括某一特定语言里的语音和音位分部和结合的规律。
现代语言学 简答整理
3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:1)General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in the context of use8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.11)Other related branches are anthropological linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics （数学语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）.4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？)Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.5.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性）or diachronic（历时性）? Why?(The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.)Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.6.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?在现代语言学里说话或写作哪一个有优先权？为什么呢？Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons:First, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form.Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.)Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的).9.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?索绪尔是如何区分语言和言语类似乔姆斯基的区分能力和表现？和它们的区别是什么？Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study. They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?你认为应该怎样用一个良好的，全面的定义来总结语言的特征？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific.11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con¬struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before.3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or dou¬ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animal can “talk” about things removed from the immediate situation）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：（课本答案：details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication）While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.12.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?人类的语言是否是完全任意的？为什么？Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.2.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Speech and writing are the major media of communication. Speech is considered primary over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to writing in language evolution, speech plays a greater role in daily communications, and speech is the way in which people acquire their native language.3.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么。
论Chomsky语言学理论的哲学基础
论Chomsky语言学理论的哲学基础1. 0引言自《句法结构》问世以来，Chomsky的语言学理论在语言学界、心理学界乃至哲学界都产生了极其深远的影响。
他的理论观点掀起了“第二次认知革命”，而其理论本身就足以构成当代认知科学的重要成就。
近半个世纪以来，Chomsky—直不断地对自己的观点进行修改和补充。
在语言学界，许多语言学家已接受他的语言学观点，并在他的原则与参数理论及其最新发展的最简方案理论框架下从事具体的语法研究工作。
他对心理语言学乃至认知心理学的影响也是巨大的。
Tanenhaus(1988)曾指出Chomsky的思想至少在三个方面造就了当代心理语言学。
在哲学界，Chomsky的语言观也引起强烈的反响，哲学家们对他的观点可谓褒贬不一。
我国近年来对他的语言学理论已陆续做过一些介绍，很多都是从语言学的角度分析问题，对他的心理学观点也有不少介绍，而对其语言学理论中哲学观点的专题介绍则不多见，本文试图在这方面做一次尝试。
2 0Chonsky的哲学思想贯穿于Chomsky语言学理论中的主要哲学思想是唯实论（realism)、自然主义（naturaism)和心智主义(mentalism)这三个观点在他的思想中融汇在一起，形成了他的内在语言（卜language)观他的哲学观点还为许多有争议的哲学问题提供了某些启示，如心智与身体问题、有关天赋的理论问题、有关“私人语目”的争论、语目知识的本质问题，等等。
2.1唯实论唯实论是Chomsky哲学思想的第一个重要观点。
我们之所以这样说，是因为Chomsky在其理论中提出和发展的语言概念和实体都是对世界真实特征的反映。
只有把Chomsky的唯实论观点与其它语言学理论做出的非唯实论的解释进行对比之后，我们才能看出它的重要性。
某些唯实论旗号下的哲学家和语言学家的理论核心实际上是工具主义的观点（instru-mmtalism)这一观点否认任何理论实体和概念的现实性。
他们认为语言学理论只不过是一些计算设置，并不做什么真值性的判断，也不对心理现实性做任何说明。
中西文化比较-辜正坤
一．人类文化演进九大律1.第七律：审美递增递减经济学上叫边际效应2.第八律：阴阳二级对立转化律：中国文化的兴旺往往伴随着西方文化的相对衰弱，中国文化的衰弱往往伴随着西方文化的兴盛。
互补喜新厌旧喜旧厌新世界文化是阴阳循环（尤其是东西文化），互进互退，相互作用的。
《东西文化是互根互构互证互抗互补互彰阴阳循环互进律》（1995）西方在数方面较好，中国在象方面好。
易经基本原理：阴阳生两仪，两仪生四象，四象生八卦。
近取诸身，远取诸物。
远取日月，近取身体器官同性相斥（多凶），异性相吸（多吉）易经与计算机原理一致3.第九律：万物五相选择律（事物发展往往五个方向）文化变迁也遵循此规律二．中西地理对比中西地理与文化关系环境三要素：地形，气候，资源。
环境三要素的影响：循环与生灭，挑战与迎战1.文化的兴衰与地理气候的变迁距今5000-4000年前后，多种文明相继壮大。
古代中国气候与文化温度暖，文明辉煌中国近5000年的气温变化曲线和中华文化本身的发展有某种程度的对应关系。
文化大循环2.辜正坤观点：中国文化历史不仅5000年前，我的推测是7000-9000，至少8500年左右。
中国的阴历和天文地理现象相契合。
宇宙——银河系——太阳系——地球——月亮：交相影响，互根互构互补互彰互抗互合。
地形，气候，资源。
山，水，平原（北纬30度——40度之间的地区是环境变迁最敏感的地带）中国隔绝机制（有利有弊）西方开放机制（有利有弊）环境与心态同构趋势。
内陆性气候：夏季湿润，雨季丰沛。
中原拥有大量的森林，耕地，属于阔叶林文化。
中西资源及文化取向比较1.中国：阔叶林，森林文明，土地肥沃。
顺应自然——农耕+畜牧业+家庭小工业+内陆贸易——农业文化倾向强。
西方：硬叶林，草场文明，土地贫瘠：征服自然——畜牧业+农耕+商贸（海上）——商业文明倾向性强。
（征服性，破坏性）中国农业文化倾向强：静态，稳定性，安居乐业，追求天下太平，重血缘关系，家族主义。
外国语言文学导论期末重点
外国语言文学导论第一节：语言和文学语言：语言是符号系统，是以语音为物质外壳，以语义为意义内容的，音义结合的词汇建筑材料和语法组织规律的体系。
语言是一种社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具，是进行思维和传递信息的工具，是人类保存认识成果的载体。
语言具有稳固性和民族性。
（语言的重要性；人类对语言的崇拜）文学：文学是指以语言文字为工具形象化地反映客观现实的艺术，包括戏剧、诗歌、小说、散文等，是文化的重要表现形式，以不同的形式（称作体裁）表现内心情感和再现一定时期和一定地域的社会生活。
文学是一种对语言使用的重新认识，它以一种特殊的方式，将日常语言，通过各种修辞手法，将世界呈现在我们面前。
对于一部好的文学作品，无论其年代多么久远，读者和作者之间能通过语言这座桥梁产生共鸣。
两者间的关系：从时间顺序上来看，似乎是先有语言，然后才有文学：苏美尔人创造的“楔形文字”，距今五千多年。
所谓学术上来讲，是先有文学，然后再有语言研究。
语言对文学的影响“语言是文学的第一要素”，没有语言就没有文学。
最好的文学作品是用最优美的语言写成的。
语言修养是文学家的起码条件。
——高尔基诗人卡西尔说，诗人不可能创造一种全新的语言。
他必须使用现有的词汇，必须遵循语言的基本规则（工具论）。
不同的文学样式对语言材料的各种功能在使用上各有侧重。
戏剧侧重于语言的会话功能，小说侧重于语言的叙事功能，诗歌则侧重于语言的抒情功能✧语言的演变对文学的影响（如诗歌）句式变化上古汉语中（弹歌）这类原始歌谣，一词为一字，两字一拍，全篇四句八字：断竹，续竹，飞土，逐肉；西周《诗经》：关关雎鸠,在河之州。
窈窕淑女,君子好逑。
唐宋：五言体和七言体格律变化：萨丕尔在语言论说，大概没有别的东西比诗的声律更能说明文学在形式上依靠语言了。
✧语言的表达局限对文学的影响。
文学是用语言写成的，文学的物质媒介是语言。
文学在一定程度上依赖语言，同时又是超语言的（难以言传，以及语言的言外之意）。
新编简明英语语言学教程
新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
(精品)索绪尔和乔姆斯基语言学的联系和不同
索绪尔和乔姆斯基语言学的联系和不同索绪尔：语言可以被作为一个由特异的要素所组成的正式系统来分析。
这些要素的例子包括他所提出的语言符号的概念。
每个语言符号拥有不同的侧面：能指和所指。
能指（signifier），意味着一个词语的“形状”，或是它的语音构成。
（如单词中字母的排列顺序，或是它的音位。
）所指（signified），意味着一个词语的概念构成，在我们听到或者阅读到能指的时候浮现在脑海中的概念或是事物。
在索绪尔看来，一种语言系统是一系列声音的差别和一系列意义的差别的组合。
语言是由人类说话的能力生发出来的社会产物。
索绪尔语言理论以语言和言语的区分为基础，认为语言学只能“就语言而研究语言”，排除任何非语言因素（如社会的、物理的、言语的……）的干扰；而就语言来说，必须区分共时和历时，语言学只研究共时的语言系统，排除任何历时因素的干扰；而就共时的语言系统的研究来说，只研究形式，不研究实质，“语言是形式，不是实质"的论断就是这一思想的集中体现。
乔姆斯基：乔姆斯基对语言的研究强调：语言原则是一种所有人类共享的固有设定。
这一理论被称作普遍语法。
乔姆斯基指出语言的核心是句法。
声音和意义并不能自发地生成联系，而建立声音与意义之间的联系也并不能形成语言，这些能够产生的只是句法。
人类的语言实际上并不仅仅为沟通、交流而存在。
根据乔姆斯基的观察和理论，孩子生来就具有自然的语言。
在孩子们开始发展他们的能力之前，语言就已经被规定存在了。
人类的思想并不是一张空白的纸，而是一种交际特征。
语言对于人类来说，是一种无意识的知识。
相同点：乔姆斯基继承发展了索绪尔的音位概念等部分理论。
两人都在寻找一种在语言中起普遍的永恒的作用的力量，索绪尔偏重于从语言本身寻找，而乔姆斯基则将其发展成为一种科学假说，认为是先天构造，人类天性的一部分。
乔姆斯基对语言能力和语言运用的区分类似于索绪尔对言语和语言的区分。
12级对外汉语一班卞政贻。
专八语言学试题【答案版本】
1. F. de. Saussure is a (n) __________linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianSwiss linguist. The founder of structural linguistics, he declared that there is only an arbitrary relationship between a linguistic sign and that which it signifies. The posthumously published collection of his lectures,Course in General Linguistics (1916), is a seminal work of modern linguistics.索绪尔，费迪南德·德：(1857-1913) 瑞士语言学家，结构主义语言的创始人，他声称在语言符号和其所指含义之间仅有一种模糊的关系。
他死后，他的讲演集出版为《普通语言学教程》（1916年），是现代语言学的开山之作2.N. Chomsky is a(n) ______linguist.Canadian B. American C. French D. SwissAmerican linguist who revolutionized the study of language with his theory of generative grammar, set forth inSyntactic Structures (1957).乔姆斯基，诺阿姆：(生于1928) 美国语言学家，他在《句法结构》（1957年）一书中所阐述的关于生成语法的理论曾使语言学研究发生突破性进展3.___________is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference totheir distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A.PhonologyB. Lexicography 词典编纂C. lexicology词典学D.Morphology词态词态学音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音系统及其分布，包括某一特定语言里的语音和音位分部和结合的规律。
大学英语语言学期末考试名词解释和论述答案 (1)
名词解释petence and Performance:•The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.•Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.•Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicatio n. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. )2.Sociolinguistics:is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.)nguage Acquisition:refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.)4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience theworld differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism.5.Phrase structure rule:The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP→(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP→(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP→(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with,very close toPP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.The boy liked the dog.(The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule[重写规则]. )6.Arbitrariness:The form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.( It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. )7.narrow transcription:transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.(The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.)8.Second Language Acquisition:Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.( SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner's interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlingua. This is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. Specifically, interlanguage consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner's native and target languages. It represents the learner’s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one’s LI competence to t he target language competence. As a type of linguistic system in its own right, interlanguage is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and communicative strategies of the learner. If learners were provided sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and opportunities to interact with language input, their interlanguage would develop gradually in the direction of the target language competence. )9.sense and reference:Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.➢Sense—is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.➢Reference—what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.10.Interlanguage:Learns put their first language back to the whole picture and studied its role from a cognitive perspective. In this sense, native language functions as a kind of “input from inside,”therefore transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental process.( SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprisesthe learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.)nguage Acquisition Device:The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a hypothetical brain mechanism that Noam Chomsky postulated to explain human acquisition of the syntactic structure of language. This mechanism endows children with the capacity to derive the syntactic structure and rules of their native language rapidly and accurately from the impoverished input provided by adult language users. The device is comprised of a finite set of dimensions along whichlanguages vary, which are set at different levels for different languages on the basis of language exposure. The LAD reflects Chomsky's underlying assumption that many aspects of language are universal (common to all languages and cultures) and constrained by innate core knowledge about language called Universal Grammar. This theoretical account of syntax acquisition contrasts sharply with the views of B. F. Skinner, Jean Piaget, and other cognitive and social-learning theorists who emphasize the role of experience and general knowledge and abilities in language acquisition.??????(LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their nativelanguage is constructed.)12.Cooperative Principle: According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。
Saussure终极版汇总
the 'signified' (signifié) - the concept it represents (the idea).
The relationship between the signifier and the signified is referred to as 'signification', and this is represented in the Saussurean diagram by the arrows. The horizontal line marking the two elements of the sign is referred to as 'the bar'.
大家好42索绪尔认为语言是人类话语能力的社会产物而且它是被社会使用和容许人用这个能力的必要习惯的总和而语言结构是受规律支配的意义其实是被语言创造出来的他又划分出能指与所指语言和言语等重要概念对后来的符号学影响深远
Saussure & Modern
Linguistics 瞿康莉
罗丽荣
General Introduction to Saussure
❖ In Saussure’s view, language is a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts: Signified(所指/受指), stands for concept; Signifier(能指/施指), stands for sound image.
乔姆斯基简介
扩展的标准理论
• 与标准理论相比, 我们会发现这样几点:1)基 础部分没有发生根本性的变化,只是在细节 上有所完善,2)为了防止大量不合法的句子 的产生,转换规则中增加了一些限制规则,3) 格确定原则也是标准理论时期所没有的,4) 乔姆斯基现在把语义解释完全放到了表层 结构中,因此,表层结构变得比原来复杂多了.
• 我们都知道直角坐标系中的圆的公式 一旦a,b,c的值确定了,直角坐标系上的任何一点 (x,y)在不在这个圆上都是确定无疑的,乔姆斯基的 目标就是希望建立一种类似于圆的公式一样的简 单明确的语法规则,任何语句序列合法与否只要通 过它一检验就一目了然,而就像公式中的参数确定 以后,我们就可以得到在圆上的无数的点一样,这些 语法规则确定以后,我们就可以生成无数的合乎语 法的句子,职是之故,乔姆斯基的句法研究被称为生 成语法.
• 1)对当时生物进化论数学等学科知识的借鉴; • 2)对结构主义语法和行为主义语言学的反动; • 3)对柏拉图的灵魂回忆说和笛卡尔的天赋观 念的扬弃; • 4)对惟理语法的继承.
天赋假说及经验触发论
• 乔姆斯基认为语言是某种天赋，儿童天生 就具有一种学习语言的能力，叫做“语言 习得机制”（LAD）。这是一种很适合他们 学习语言的独特的知识。在乔姆斯基看来， 儿童生来就有一种独特的天赋才能。他们 不仅有一般的倾向和潜力，而且有着关于 世界本质的知识，尤其是关于语言本质的 知识。按照他的观点，对语言或语言结构 的研究能够揭示人类思维的本质。
• 2)乔姆斯基的规则既可以生成正确的句子, 也可以生成错误的句子.比如用 S→NP+VP, VP→V+NP两条规则,我们可 以得出John drinks wine.和Wine drinks John,这说明动词和名词之间有一定的选择.比如John married Mary 和Mary was married by john 的意思完全不同.前句中约翰是玛丽的新郎, 后一句中他们根本就不太可能生活在同一 屋檐下.
(NEW)戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
目 录第1章 导 言1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解1.3 考研真题与典型题详解第2章 音位学2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解2.3 考研真题与典型题详解第3章 形态学3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解3.3 考研真题与典型题详解第4章 句法学4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解4.3 考研真题与典型题详解第5章 语义学5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解5.3 考研真题与典型题详解第6章 语用学6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解6.3 考研真题与典型题详解第7章 语言变化7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解7.3 考研真题与典型题详解第8章 语言与社会8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解8.3 考研真题与典型题详解第9章 语言与文化9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解9.3 考研真题与典型题详解第10章 语言习得10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解10.3 考研真题与典型题详解第11章 第二语言习得11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解11.3 考研真题与典型题详解第12章 语言与大脑12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解12.3 考研真题与典型题详解第1章 导 言1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
语言学知识汇总
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英语语言学概论Saussure and Chomsky1
Saussure’s Linguistic Structuralism
• Langue and Parole 语言和言语
• Synchronic and Diachronic 共时和历时
• Sign, Signifier and Signified 符号，能指和所指
• Language and Mind(1968) 《语言和心灵》
• Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar(1972) 《生成语法的语义学研究》
• Reflections on Language（1975） 《语言论》
Chomsky’s Linguistic Theories
• It was posthumously published in 1916. • It is considered Saussure’s most influential work. • His ideas in this book leave a monumental impact.
"A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas."
Differences
• Chomsky‘s language competence is a psychological construct.
• Saussure’s langue is a set of social conventions.
THANK YOU
Similarties
• Represent a similar classification of knowledge and behavior and a similar dichotomy of the scope of linguistic inquiry。
语言学论述题答案
1、How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar in that they both think that language can be divided into two levels, one level is abstract (e.g. langue; competence) and the other concrete (e.g. parole; performance). And they also think that what linguists should deal with is the abstract level which can reveal the real nature of language. At the same time, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2、What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones.A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /p/ in English can be realized as [p] and [ph], which are allophones of the phoneme /p/.3、What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.4、What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations”has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.5、How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?The language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter have different emphasis on different aspects. Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactive description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment. In my opinion, behaviorists view is more reasonable and convincingbecause language acquisition is a process of enforcing and reinforcing. Only through this process can a person learn a language well. Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation, two varieties of a language exit side by side through out the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossic each has different role to play as situation changes.6、Based on your own learning experiences, please illustrate how important it is to learn its culture when learning a foreign language?Based on my own learning experiences, I find it is very important to learn its culture when learning a foreign language, A typical example of these is that when greeting acquaintances, we tend to say "Have you eaten?", which will cause misunderstanding to a foreigner.7、Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.The language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter have different emphasis on different aspects. Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactive description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment. In my opinion, behaviorists view is more reasonable and convincing because language acquisition is a process of enforcing and reinforcing. Only through this process can a person learn a language well.。
语言学讲解和名词解释之欧阳育创编
第一章Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims:let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties:design features of language ; someimportant distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言A tool for communication交流的工具An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language?什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquiallanguagean abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently usedsense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of suchsounds to which meaning is attributed, used for theexpression or communication of thoughts andfeelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbalcommunication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social andconventional in that language is a social semiosticand communication can only take place effectively ifall the users share a broad understanding of humaninteraction including such associated factors asnonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitions一.Language is a system of arbitraryvocalsymbols used forhuman communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source(sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according tocertain rules systematically, rather than randomly.They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He thetable cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection betweena linguistic form and its meaning, between thesounds that people use and the objects to whichthese sounds refer. This explains and is explainedby the fact that different language have differentwords for the same object, it is good illustrationof the arbitrary nature of language . it is only ourtacit agreement of utterance and concept at workand not any innate relationship bound up in theutterance. A typical example to illustrate thearbitrary of language is a famous quotation fromshakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose byany other name would smell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing butconvention. Namely, people use the sounds orvoval forms to symbolize what they wish to referto.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed theirwriting systems are. Writing systems came muchlater than the spoken forms. The fact that smallchildren learn and can only learn to speak andlisten before they write or read also indicates thatlanguage is primarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness----arbitrariness(任意性): one design featureof human language,which refers to the fact thatthe forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.) It was discussed by Saussurefirst.The link between them is a matter ofconvention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and itsmeaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
语言学—戴炜栋 （自己整理的）
主义语言学创始人 ●提出语言 language 和言语 speech 的区别 ●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分 Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory. 2. Noam Chomsky 乔姆斯基：the founder of generative grammar 生成语法创始人 ●提出关于语言能力 competence 与 语言运用 performance 的区分概念 ●1957 年提出转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar 简作 TG Grammar 的研
6.英语语音的分类(the classification of English speech sounds) 英语元音和辅音的本质区别：发元音(vowel)时气流从肺部出来的气流没有受到任何阻塞。 在辅音(consonants)发出的过程中气流受到了这样或那样的阻塞。 ㈠辅音的两种划分标准：发音方式（Manners of articulation）、发音部位（Places of articulation） 和【清浊特征】
15.
中存储的词语-形象 word-image 的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
Parole（言语）：指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语 actual use of
language，是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体
SaussureandChomsky区别
SaussureandChomsky区别Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinctionbetween the abstract language system and the actual useof language. their purpose is to single out the languagesystem for serious study. Two linguists idea differ in thatSaussure took a sociological view of language, Chomskylooks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguist shouldstudy is the ideal speaker’s competence, and the task oflinguists is to discover and specify the rules of language.We can see that Saussure's distinction between "langue" and "parole" is similar to Chomsky's distinctionbetween COMPETENCE and PERFORMANCE.Saussure to mean the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of or, as Saussure said, "agree to use". Langue is the "ideal" form of a language.Saussure called the actual use of language by people inspeech or writing "parole". He looks at language more froma sociological point of view.Chomsky thinks that he object of investingation inlinguistics is the ideal speaker’s competence, not hisperformance; that is, we must discover what an ideal sheaker knows of his native language. Chamsky also believes that one’s linguistic competence must be a set of rules which can be applied over and over again to generate large number of sentences, including sentences he has never heard before. He looks at language more from a psychological point of view.These are the distinctions between Chomsky and Saussure. 教育一班0962010707杨佩玲。
英语语言学概论刘盼Saussure and Chomsky
Main Work
Course in General Linguistics 《普通语言学教程》
It was posthumously published in 1916. It is considered Saussure’s most influential work. His ideas in this book leave a monumental impact.
doctorate in 1880. e) Afterwards he relocated to Paris, where he would
lecture on ancient and modern languages for eleven years. f) In 1891. living in Geneva, teaching Sanskrit and historical linguistics, he married there and had two sons.
Saussure & Chomsky
小组成员：刘盼、孙娴、杨洁、魏梦娟、薛奇妹、陈佳炜
Saussure
Biography
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) was a Swiss linguist who occupies an important place in the history of linguis tics. He was the pivotal figure in the transition from the 19th to 20th century, and is generally considered the founder of modern linguistics.
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Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction
between the abstract language system and the actual use
of language. their purpose is to single out the language
system for serious study. Two linguists idea differ in that
Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky
looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguist should
study is the ideal speaker’s competence, and the task of
linguists is to discover and specify the rules of language.
We can see that Saussure's distinction between "langue" and "parole" is similar to Chomsky's distinction
between COMPETENCE and PERFORMANCE.
Saussure to mean the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a
language have a shared knowledge of or, as Saussure said,
"agree to use". Langue is the "ideal" form of a language.
Saussure called the actual use of language by people in
speech or writing "parole". He looks at language more from
a sociological point of view.
Chomsky thinks that he object of investingation in
linguistics is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his
performance; that is, we must discover what an ideal sheaker knows of his native language. Chamsky also believes that one’s linguistic competence must be a set of rules which can be applied over and over again to generate large number of sentences, including sentences he has never heard before. He looks at language more from a psychological point of view.
These are the distinctions between Chomsky and Saussure.
教育一班
0962010707
杨佩玲。