Exercises to Chapter Three胡壮麟语言学

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语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第3章

Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成1. Morpheme 词素的定义Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation.Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes.②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme.A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many othersA few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot).A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based onsimple meaning distinctions. For example, the choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever”.4)Fourth, in English, most inflectional affixes are suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, Mary’s. But derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both at the same time. E.g. depart, teacher, international.3. Allomorph and morphological change 变体①allomorph 词素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, im-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called Allomorphs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches.②morphological change 形态变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.第二部分Word 词1. word 词和词项的定义Word is a typical grammatical unit between Morpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check, write, and fat. Lexical items refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms, such as boy and boys, or check, checks, checked, and checking. So Word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and Lexical Item a specific term (boy and boys are two lexical items).2. Three characteristics of word 词的三个特性①Stability 稳定性Words, concerning their internal structures, are the most stable of all linguistic units, Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. For example, the word chairman cannot be re-arranged as * manchair, the latter being an unacceptable word in English.②Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性Uninterruptibility means that new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in it. For example, nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment.③ A minimum free form 最小的自由形式Leonard Bloomfield advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” while word as “the minimum free form”. Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. For example, Is Jane coming tomorrow? Possibly.3. Classification of words 词的种类①Variable and invariable words 可变词与不变词V ariable words have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those such as since, when, seldom, hello. They don’t have inflective endings.②Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词（功能词）和词汇词（实义词）Grammatical words（function words）:Those that mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Lexical words（content words）:Those that mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are lexical words.③Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others.Open-class word: the Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly added to the lexical system of a language.④Word class（part of speech）词类This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar.Nine word classes were established: they were noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, article, pronoun, and interjection.Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammer.i. Particles助词Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to” , the negative marker “not”, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.ii. Auxiliaries助动词Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.iii. Pro-form代词形式The items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions are called Pro-forms. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.iv. Determiners限定词Determiners refer to those words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun group, and that determine the kind of reference the nominal group has.第三部分Word formation 词汇构成1. Word formation（1）：From Morpheme to Word 从词素到词(1) The inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, Table/tables.(2) The derivational way of formationDerivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed. It can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound).①Derivation派生Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. In contrast to inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.E.g. Changed: delight+ful=delightful; unchanged: non+smoker= nonsmoker②Compound合成Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, cloakroom, railway. It can be divided into two types:(1) Invention 发明法Technological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life, many new lexical items come directly from them, such as Coke, nylon.(2) Blending 混成法Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, smoke+ fog →smog; breakfast + lunch →brunch.(3) Abbreviation / Clipping 缩写法/截断法A new word is created by cutting the initial part or the final part or cutting both the initial and the final parts of the original words. E. g. telephone→phone; fanatic→fan; influenza→flu.(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E. g. WTO→World Trade Organization(5) Back-formation 逆构词法Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E. g. editor→edit(6) Analogical creation 类推构词法The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs. E. g. work →wrought →worked.(7) Class shift 词性变换By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion. E. g. Engineer(v/n)(8) Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages, such as Greek, French, Spanish and other languages have all played an active role in this process. There are four types of borrowing:①Loanwords（全部借词）：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change.E. g. coup d’ état , tea , 秀，脱口秀②Loanblend（混合借词）：a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E. g. Chinatown 吉普车③Loanshift（转移借词）：a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E. g. artificial satellite from the Russian S putnik.④Loan translation（翻译借词）：a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, also called Calque. E. g. black humor (humour noir), found object (objet trouve).第四部分Word group and phrase 词组和短语Word group is a group of words, it is an expansion of a word.Phrase is a contraction of a clause nominal group, such as Verbal group, Adverbial group, preposition group.。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》修订版1——12章习题及答案

胡壮麟《语言学教程》修订版1——12章习题及答案(总25页)-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1-CAL-本页仅作为文档封面，使用请直接删除胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A. treeB. typewriterC.crash D. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.”is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC.informative D. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation？A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language？— A nice day, isn’t it？— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC.Performative D. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal languageuser’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC.Langue D. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for somethingor at someone t hat exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC.displacement D. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire ourfirst language.A. Psycholinguistics linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. PracticallinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. ComparativelinguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that thelinguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key:[In the reference keys, I won’t give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. – icywarmtea]I.1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACACII.11~15FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII.verbal22. productivity / creativity23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho 25.scientific 26. descriptive27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceIV.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence. 34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V.35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, . words, which are distinct in meaning. 36.It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.37.It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against the observablefacts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC.pronunciation D. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC.phoneme D. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are__________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC.morphemes D. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred toas__________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC.pharynx D. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC.phones D. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds？A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation？A. [n]B. [m]C.[ b ] D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels？A. [i:]B. [ u ]C.[e] D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating？A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottalstop D. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a numberof modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllablescontain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowelglides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the__________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the__________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative答案I.1~5 ACDAA6~10 DBABBII.11~15TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25.obstruction 26. minimal pairs27.diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29.Phonemes 30.air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation.In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocalcords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC.five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC.infixes D. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and__________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC.infix D. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC.insertion D. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC.initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC.morpheme D. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on thefirst element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process ofa word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an__________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways:__________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language What are they （厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds？VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉大学，2004）III(1) acronyma. foe(2) freemorpheme b. subconscious (3) derivationalmorpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectionalmorpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefixe. calculationKey:I.1~5 AACBB6~10 BCADBII.11~15FTFTT 16~20 FTFFFIII.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close,open 26. back-formation27.conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, . –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3)e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC.finite D. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to thegrammati¬cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC.grammatical D. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC.preposition D. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC.social D. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC.city D. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC.compound D. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are ableto produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are notfixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax32. IC analysis33. Hierarchical structure34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deepstructure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key:I.1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBAII.11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTTIII.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate 25. complex 26. embedded27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of eachstructural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. . The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V.35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning[Ma inly taken from lxm1000w’s exercises. – icywarmtea]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. GeoffreyLeech D. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualistview B. contexutalismC. the namingtheory D. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT trueA. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. isinconsistent withC.entails D. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.。

胡壮麟语言学讲义第三章（复习）ChapterThreePhonology

胡壮麟语言学讲义第三章（复习）ChapterThreePhonologyChapter Three PhonologyTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonology Focal points: phoneme; phonological rules Teaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pairTeaching procedure:Outline of this chapter:1 Phonology1.1 Definition of phonology1.1.1 Phonology (at p24)1.1.2 Phonetics1.2 the difference between phonetics and phonology2 Terms in phonology2.1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)2.1.1 concept2.1.2 arguments and examples2.1.3Three requirements for a minimal pair:2.2 phonemes2.2.1 phones2.2.2 phoneme2.2.3 Phonemic transcription2.3 allophones2.3.1Allophones (P40, Para.2)2.3.2 Complementary distribution(P40,para.2) and free variation2.4 Difference between phonemes and allophones3 Phonological process3.1 assimilation (P42,para.1)3.1.1 regressive(P42,Para.2)3.1.2 progressive3.1.3 Examples (P42, para.3)3.2 Phonological rules(P42)3.2.1 devoicing,3.2.2 nasalization,3.2.3 dentalization,3.2.4 velarization3.2.5 the deletion rule4 Suprasegmental phonemes4.1 concept4.2 kinds of suprasegmental phonemes4.2.1 stress4.2.2Intonation4.2.3 Linking5 Some principle of phonology5.1The sequential rules5.2 the deletion rule1 Phonology1.1 Definition of phonology1.1.1 Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (at p24) 1.1.2 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.1.2 the difference between phonetics and phonology1) Phonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. Both are related to the study of sounds.They differ in their approach and focus.2) Phonology is concerned with the abstract and mentalaspect of the sounds in language while phonetics deals with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.3) definition4) P 16, Para 2: Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute of language and meaning.5)Phonetics focuses on chaos while phonology focuses on order.2 Terms in phonology2.1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)2.1.1 conceptWhen two words are identical in form in every way except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. P392.1.2 arguments and examples1)When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc.2)All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identicalin form except for the initial consonants.3) Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling.2.1.3Three requirements for a minimal pair:1) the same number of segment2) one phonetic difference in the same place3) different meaninge.g. a minimal pair : lit-lip; phone-tone; pill-billa minimal set: beat, bit, bet, boot, but, biteThe minimal pair test helps establish which sounds contrast in a language.2.2 phonemes2.2.1 phones: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. It’s a phonetic unit or segment. (in the mouth)Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets “[]”(phonetic transcription)Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. Usually phones of different phonemes distinguish meaning.2.2.2 phoneme:(P16, Para.1) A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.( Or a phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.)2.2.3 Phonemic transcription: Phonemes are placed in slashes “// ” (cf.phonetic transcription)e.g. Neither the sound [p] in pit or the sound [b] in bit is a phoneme. They are phones; they are the phonetic realization of the phoneme /p/ and /b/. 2.3 allophones2.3.1Allophones are the variants of the same phoneme.2.3.2 Complementary distribution and free variationPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phoneme, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]; If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic context.Strictly speaking, every sound is different from every othersounds. But in phonology some of the difference may be ignored.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning.(1)Complementary distributionE.g 1 / p /→[ p ] / [ s ] _______/ p /→[ p ?] / elsewhereE.g 2 / l /→ [ l ] / _______ V/ l /→[ l?] / V _______Not all speech sounds occur in the same environment, when the two sounds never occur in the same environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.Not all phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the same phoneme. They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.(2)Free variationA phone may sometimes has free variants.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word which maybe caused by dialect or personal habit, then the two sounds are in free variation.2.4 Difference between phonemes and allophones1）concept2)transcription3)abstract vs, concrete4)possibility of production3 Phonological process3.1 assimilation (P42,para.1)Assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or the characteristics of a neighboring sound.3.1.1 regressive(P42,Para.2)A following sound influencing a proceeding sound is called regressive assimilation3.1.2 progressiveA proceeding sound influencing a following sound is known as progressive assimilation3.1.3 Examples (P42, para.3)1) assimilation occurring within a wordcan tan tenth sink2) assimilation occurring beyond a wordYou can keep them.You can go now3.2 Phonological rules(P42)3.2.1 devoicing3.2.2 nasalization3.2.3 dentalization3.2.4 velarization3.2.5 the deletion ruleThe “deletion rule”tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. While the letter is mute in “sign”,“design”and “paradigm”, it is pronoun ced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation”, and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as : delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.Sign, design, there is no {g} soundSignature, designation the {g} is pronounced.Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant.4 Suprasegmental phonemess4.1 conceptT he phonemic phonemes that occur above the level of the phonemic segments are called suprasegmental phonemes.“Suprasegmental phonology”refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme. Suprasegmental features: includes stress, length, and pitch as what they suppose to be principal suprasegmental features.4.2 kinds of suprasegmental phonemes4.2.1 stressStress, including both word and sentence stress, distinguishes meaning in English形容词词义动词词义′abstract 抽象的ab′stract 摘要；提炼′frequent 时常发生的fre′quent 常去（地点）′perfect 完美的；完全的p er′fect 使完美′present 出席的；现在的pre′sent 给；赠；呈递复合词词义名词短语词义′heavy weight 重量级拳击手heavy ′weight 特别重的人或物′red cap 宪兵red ′cap 红色的帽子′small fry 不重要的人或者物small ′fry 小鱼苗′tall boy（卧室用的）高衣柜tall ′boy 高个子的男孩4.2.2 IntonationIntonation plays an important role in almost all languages: rising, falling, rise-fall, fall-rise intonation.4.2.3 Linking5 Some principle of phonology5.1The sequential rulesThere are principles that govern the combination of soundsin a particular language. These principles are called sequential rules.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: 1）The first phoneme must be /s/; 2）The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/; 3）The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ or /j/.***Sequential rules are language specific.5.2 the deletion ruleThe deletion rule tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example: desi g n, k nife.。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》学习辅导

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。

后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。

结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。

不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛（）外语版的相关帖子。

本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。

整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。

在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。

也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。

需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。

冰暖茶2006年11月前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon (14)Chapter 4 Syntax (21)Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind (29)Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society (35)Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer (49)Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (53)Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (59)第二部分重点章节测试题 (67)Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology (70)Test Three Morphology (73)Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics (79)Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (88)第三部分测试题参考答案 (91)参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The ―yo-he-ho‖ theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word ―book‖ to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression ―the word book‖ to talk about the sign ―b-o-o-k‖ itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronicdescription is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, but because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. –icywarmtea]Being etic means researcher s’making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, orcompletely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certainparts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place ofarticulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and thensuddenly releasing it. In English, [☐ ♌ ♦ ♎  ♑] are stops and[❍ ⏹ ☠] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape withfriction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, closetogether but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐   ❆ ♦  ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without thevocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this classof sounds includes [♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from thelungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the onlylateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the undersideof the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projectionof the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as ―BBC English‖ or ―Oxford English‖ because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees arerecognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have beennasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐], CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 – CV16.[I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. –icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map,it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of thedifferent forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak /☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in the word like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are both allophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless.This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.End of Chapter 2Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units.It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word ―write‖ is the lexeme of ―write, writes, wrote, writing and written.‖2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit thatcannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word ―boxes‖ has two morphemes: ―box‖ and ―es,‖ neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality ―-s‖makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positionalmobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis +appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as ―the maximum free form‖ and word ―the minimum free form,‖ the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, acomplete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow –follows –following –followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have noinflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguisticanalysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker ―to,‖ the negative marker ―not,‖ and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which。

(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。

胡壮麟版《语言学教程》第三章Chapter3 Lexicon 总结

(2) Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性
By uninterru ptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.
Lexicon Change 词的变化
Phonological Change 音位 Orthographic Change 拼写变化
3.1 What is word?
WORD is a unit of expression that
native spears may recognize by intuition, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. A WORD is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.
(2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term 作为一般用语和具体用语的词作为一般用语和具体用语的词(The common factor underlying a set of forms)

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

胡壮麟-语言学教程修订版-课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter--(3)

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that canbe distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes”has two morphemes: “box”and “es,”neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself,a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex wordhave little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relativepositional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy.Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearrangedas * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing isto be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment:dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the partsof a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum freeform,”the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself,a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the wordremains relatively constant. E.g. follow –follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when,seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns,are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e.those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs,adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularlyadded. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs,adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more preciselydefined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introducedinto linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker“to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units inphrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Becauseof their unique properties, which one could hardly expect ofa verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate wordclass.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve asreplacements for different elements in a sentence. For example,in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used beforethe noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine thekind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can bedivided into three subclasses: predeterminers, centraldeterminers and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed.An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can beused only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzedwithout total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of theword left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism,after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the rootnation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound.E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,conceive and perceive.A few English roots may have both free and boundvariants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep-in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-in friends andfriendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stemcan be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem maycontain a root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person,finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical classof the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectionalmorphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the differencebetween them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicategrammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s,etc.Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a singleword. In contrast, derivational affixes often change thelexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the wordthey attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivationalaffixes might or might not, such as the relation between smalland smallness for the former, and that between brother andbrotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemanticlinguistic factors outside the word they attach to but withinthe phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boylikes to navigate on the internet.”is determined by thesubject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixesare more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want totalk about the property “clever”or we want to talk about “thestate of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, whichare always word final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivationalaffixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher,etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person,finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical classof the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into thecompositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to producea single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway,rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, itis also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually,the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns:self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive,machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V+ N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N andV + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck,walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class ofthe original word either changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch oflinguistics referring to the analysis and classification of thephonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, andcorrespondingly, the grammatical factors that affect theappearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonology ormorphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as aresult of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised byone sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that thesounds become less alike, or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items,their producers or their brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which twowords are blended by joining the initial part of the first word andthe final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts ofthe two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initialpart or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation wherea shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longerform already in the language.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugationof some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in thisprocess.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds mayalso occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, whichwas overlooked and accepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called“contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothingto do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. Thisprocess of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, orconversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubtset off graphitic changes.。

英语学习胡壮麟语言学详细笔记

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规那么在语言交际中的表达。

胡壮麟语言学第三章课件

Chapter 3 Lexicon 17
3.1.3 Classification of words Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.
Chapter 3 Lexicon
10
3.1.1 Three senses of "word"
(3) A grammatical unit sentence clause word group/phrase word free-root morpheme root (allomorph) bound affix
(3) A grammatical unit A word, in this sense, is then a grammatical unit, of the same theoretical kind as morpheme and sentence. This understanding may be acceptable when speaking of polymorphemic（多语素的） words, such as blackbird, aircraft and downhill. However, there is a loophole（漏洞）in this statement since it makes one confused when one is talking about monomorphemic words, such as black, bird, air, craft, town and hall. They are free morphemes as well as words.

语言学练习(语言学教程胡壮麟主编)

Exercise of linguistics 语言学练习（语言学教程胡壮麟主编）I Explain the following terms in English.1. Homonymy同音（或同形）异义关系：The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called homonymy., i.e. different words are identical (相同的)in sound or spelling , or in both.例：for instance, 1) 同形异义词homographs: cloze [kləuz] ----close [kləuz], sow /səʊ/ ---- sow /soʊ/( US); 2)同音异义词homophones: flower----flour, dear---deer, etc. 3) 同形同音词perfect homonyms：angle---angle, bank---bank.2. predication analysis (述谓分析法)（语义分析）is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate (relation element). The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. (instance)3 tenor of discourse （话语意旨）The ―tenor of discourse‖ is about the variation relating to, or resulting from, what the user is trying to do with language, such as teaching, persuading, advertising, instructing, etc. The generic situation of a discourse is often determined in terms of tenor of discourse. For example, an advertisement is by definition an attempt to persuade through linguistic and visual means, and a sermon is designed to exhort and teach.4.Arbitrariness任意性：refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs have no natural relationship to their meaning. There is no logic connection between meaning and sounds. For instance, we cannot explain why a book is called a /buk/and a pen a /pen/ (1.3.1)5.Performance(语言运用)：the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.(1.9.4) A speaker’s language performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. (nervousness, )6. Dysphonia (语言障碍) is the medical term for disorders of the voice: an impairment in the ability to produce voice sounds using the vocal organs Thus, dysphonia is a phonation（发声）disorder. The dysphonic voice can be hoarse or weak, or excessively breathy, harsh, or rough, but some kind of phonation is still possible (contrasted with the more severe aphonia where phonation is impossible).7. Received Pronunciation （标准发音P34）is a way of pronouncing British English that is often used as a standard in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language. The abbreviation RP is alsoused. (Many people also call it BBC English, Oxford English. It is also widely used in public schools and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.)8.endocentric construction(向心结构)：is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD．(4.2.3.1) usually, noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types. Such as these two old stone bridges, will be leaving, very late.9. Homogram(同形异义异源词) a word which has the same spelling as another but different meaning, derivation, or pronunciation. Same as "homograph". 'Bow' meaning the front of a ship, 'bow' meaning a loop made in a string or ribbon and 'bow' meaning a device used to shoot arrows are all homograms.10.manner of discourse（话语方式）：is the linguistic reflection of the relationship between the language user and the medium of transmission. Language is either spoken or written. Spoken language may be spontaneous or prepared, and written language may be spoken or to be read.11.Allophone音位变体：variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. Ex. in the words /pit/ /tip/ /spit/, the different /p/’s are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.12.design feature 结构特征：the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from language of animals. (There are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.)13.Synchronic 共时性: synchronic study is the description of a language at some point of time, usually but not necessarily the present, (as if it stopped developing). For example, an essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖ may be synchronic if the author does not recall the past of THE.14.Diachronic历时性：said of the study of development of language and languages over time. (Diachronic study is the description of a language as it changes through time.) for example, the essay ―On the Use of THE‖ may be diachronic if the author claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergonetremendous alteration15. competence语言能力:According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentence am to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.16.Performance语用能力：the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. Speaker’s performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors.ngue语言：F. de Saussure refers ―langue‖ to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Langue is relatively stable and systematic.18. Parole言语：F. de Saussure refers ―parole‖ to the actual language, or the realization of langue. Parole is specific to the speaking situation, and it is a naturally occurring event. For Saussure, parole is a mass of confusing facts, thus not suited for systematic investigation.19.Phonology音系学：the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.20Consonant辅音：a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction,21.V owel 元音：a major category of sound segments，produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.22. distinctive features区别特征：a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.23. IPA国际音标：a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart),designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It was to consist of as many Roman alphabet as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary. The latest version has been revised in 1993and updated in 2005,see p.28.24.morpheme语素：the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For example, the word ―tourists‖ contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning -ist(meaning "person who does something "), and a minimal unit of grammatical function-s(indicating plural).25. Inflection屈折变化：is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached,26. root词根：refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the word ―internationalism‖, after the removal of inter-,-al and -ism, the part left is the root nation.27 loanword借词：the borrowing of a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases ,to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. For instance, English borrowed au pair, encore, coup d'etat and others from French, al fresco(in the open air ) from Italian, tea from Chinese, sputnik from Russian and moccasin(a type of shoe) from an American Indian language.28 Loanshift 转移借词：is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. For example, the Italian ponte means "bridge"in the literal sense, when it refers to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from English.29 Loanblend混合借词：is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed , but the meaning is fully borrowed. For example, the first parts of the words cocnut and China-town from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts are of the English origin,30 Assimilation同化：refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called "contact "or "contiguous" 接近assimilation. The assimilation processes as work could be explained by the ―theory of least effort‖; that is, in speaking we tend to use as little efforts as possible so that we do not want to vary too often the places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. For instance, in expression such as immoral, illegal, impolite, the negative prefixes im-, il- or ir- should be in- etymologically. Sometimes assimilation may occur between two sounds that are not far separated. For instance, discussing shortly(/s/becomes /ʃ/) and confound it (/ə/becomes/au/).This iscalled "noncontiguous" or "distant assimilation.‖ P2131 Dissimilation异化：refers to the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of anther , so that the sounds become less alike, or different, For example: marbre (French)--marble peregrinus(Latin)—pilgrim.32 category 范畴：The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense , aspect, voice, and so on.33 gradable antonymy: 等级反义关系Gradable antonomy is the sense relation between antonyms which differ in terms of degree. There is an intermediate ground between the two. The denial of one is not necessarily assertion of the other. For example, something that is not "good "is not necessarily "bad ". It may simply be "so-so" or "average".34.Converse antonymy逆向反义关系：Converse antonymy is a special type of antonymy that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. For example, X buys something from Y means the same as Y sells something to X. X is the parent of Y means the same as Y is the child of X. It is the same relationship seen from two different angles.35 prepositional logic命题逻辑：Propositional logic，also known as propositional calculus 命题算法or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions; how the truth of a ' composite ' proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.36. predicate logic谓词逻辑：Predicate logic, also called predicate calculus, studies the internal structure of simple propositions. In this logical system, propositions like Socrates is a man will be analyzed into two pares: argument and predicate. An argument is a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made. And a predicate is a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred to. In the proposition Socrates is a man, therefore, Socrates is the argument and man is the predicate,37 logic connective:逻辑联结词A logical connective is a logical element which helpsto construct a composite proposition on the basis of simple proposition(s). there are 5 usual logical connectives: the negative connective ~, the conjunctive &, the disjunctive connective V, the implicational (or conditional) connective --- and the equivalent (or biconditional) connective =.38.construal operations (识解操作) are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.39 Performative施为句：A performative is a sentence like "I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth ", which does not describe things and cannot be said to be true or false . The uttering of a performative sentence is, or is a part of , the doing of an action. Verbs like "name" are known as performative verbs.40.ostensive communication明示交际：“ostensive communication”，or "inferential communication ", is a shorthand for "ostensive -inferential communication". That is, communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference on the part of the hearer and ostension (making clear of one's intention to express something) on the part of the speaker.41. structural syllabus结构教学大纲influenced by structuralist linguistics, the structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures, The vocabulary and grammatical rules included in the teaching materials are carefully ordered according to factors such as frequency, complexity and usefulness, (11.4.3) The syllabus input is selected and graded according to grammatical notions of simplicity and complexity. These syllabuses introduce one item at a time and require mastery of that item before moving on to the next.42.Corpus 语料库a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or asa transcription of recorded speech .The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language, for example, to determine how the usage of a particular sound ,word, or syntactic construction varies. The two most important factors in a corpus are the size and types of texts selected.43.pidgin 洋泾滨语Pidgin is not anyone's first language. It is a blending of several languages, developing as a contact language of people who speak different languages and try to communication with one another on a regular basis.44 phrase structure grammar短语结构语法（12.4.3）Phrase structure grammar is thesecond model put forward by Chomsky, which consists solely of phrase-structure(PS) rules that formalize some of the traditional insight of constituent structure analysis. This grammar has greater generative powers than a finite state grammar because it can process sentences that cannot be processed by the later.???45. segmental analysis 切分分析法：is a method of sentence analysis for describing the connective morphology of sentence. Segmental analysis describes sentence in terms of which each elements of sentence connects to each other, and the characteristics of those connections. 答案尚不确定。

(完整版)胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案(学习必备)

胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案1. Design feature:are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.Function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing:pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69.c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.ernment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.municative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74.textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76.denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79.reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81.synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.plentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83.gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such aslong:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. Theshorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86.hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with twovalues,e.g<+human>positionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90.selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinarysense,e.g.in a specific context.99.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight. nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literalutterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knowswhy and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from theother:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late. 149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..puter system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information. rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169.transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170.validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171.rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172.hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of bothfrequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting thetarget,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173.discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174.integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.。

Exercises to Chapter Three胡壮麟语言学

Exercises to Chapter ThreeI. Term Explanation.1. morpheme (重大2003; 北外2004)2. inflectional morphemes (上外2000; 南开2004)3. bound morpheme (同济大学1999; 上外2000)4. backformation (武汉大学2003; 北外、中山、南开2004)5. folk etymology (中山、南开2003)6. lexeme (中山2002)7. morphology (吉林大学2000, 浙大、人大2002) 8. stem (南开大学2004)9. blending (武大2002; 上海交大2003; 南开2004) 10. root, lexical word (重大2003) 11.closed-class words/open-class words (浙大2002) 12. inflection (同济2000)II. Multiple Choice.1. Compound words consist of _____ morphemes. (北二外2003)A. boundB. freeC. both bound and free2. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are _____. (北二外2001)A. grammatical words B lexical words C. neither grammatical nor lexical words3. “ Radar” is a/an _____. (东南大学2001)A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping4. The words “take” and “table” are called _____ because they can occur unattached. (武汉理工大学2005)A. free wordsB. bound morphemesC. free morphemesD. inflectional morphemes5. A _____ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. (同上)A. stemB. rootC. allomorphD. lexeme6. _____ is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. (同上)A. BlendingB. AcronymC. AbbreviationD. Invention7. _____ is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaing is fully borrowed. (同上)A. LoanshiftB. Loan translationC. LoanblendD. Loanword8. Which of the following words is formed by the process of blending_______? (对外经贸2006)A. WTOB. MotelC. BookshelfD. red-faced9. V ocabulary change in language can include all except ______? (对外经贸大学2006)A. addition of new wordsB. simplification of word formsC. loss of wordsD. changes of word meaning10. Which of the following words are formed by blending? (对外经贸大学2005)A. girlfriendB. televisionC. smogD. bunch11. Write the proper description from the list under B for the underlined part of each word in A(大连外院2002)A B1) deafen a. free morpheme f. derivational prefix2) boyish b. bound root g. inflectional infix3) conceive c. inflectional suffix h. derivational infix4) impenetrable d. derivational suffix i. Stem5) blackened e. inflectional prefix k. bound morpheme6) I’ve12. Match each expression under A with the one statement under B that characterizes it. (大连外院2002)A B1) a noisy crow a. compound noun2) eat crow b. root morpheme plus derivational prefix3) scarecrow c. phrase consisting of an adjective plus noun4) the crow d. root morpheme plus inflectional affix5) crowlike e. root morpheme plus derivational suffix6) crows f. grammatical morpheme followed by lexical morphemeg. idiomIII. Blank Filling.1. Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the __________ __________ of words and the __________ by which words are fromed.2. Morphology can be subdivided into two branches: __________ morphology and __________morphology.3. The phonological and orthographical realizations of a morpheme are termed __________.4. [-t], [-d] and [-id] are __________ of the morpheme {-ed}.5. ____ affixes, ____ affixes, and ____ roots are all bound morphemes.6. A morpheme can convey two kinds of meaning: __________ meaning and __________ meaning.7. The allomorphs [-s] and [-iz] of the morpheme {plural} indicate the applications of the __________ rule and __________ rule.8. Polymorphemic words other than compounds have two parts: the roots and the __________. (武汉大学2000)9. On, before and together are __________ words ---- they are words which do not take inflectional endings. (武汉大学2000)10. Give the regular allomorphs of plural in English: ________, ________, ________, ________, ________. (大连外院2001)11. Give the regular allomorphs of past tense in English: ________, ________, ________. (大连外院2001)12. Nouns, verbs and adjectives are __________ words other than function words. (中山大学2002)13. In the addition of new words, smog is a(an) __________. (东南大学2003)14. As a result of __________, the negative morpheme in imperfect and impossible is “im-”rather than “in-”. (武汉大学2000)15. The linguistic term used for the common factor of a set of verbs, such as writing, wrote, written, write and writes is __________. (清华大学2001)16. A __________ morpheme is one that cannot constitue a word by itself. (北二外2006)17. __________ is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of supposed affix of a longer form already present in the language. For example, the verb edit was formed from editor by dropping the supposed derivational suffix –or. (人大2007)18. Some morphemes like –ish, -ness, -ly, -dis, trans-, un- are never words by themselves but are always parts of words. These affixes are __________ morphemes. (人大2007)19. There are two fields of morphology: the study of __________ and the study of __________. (人大2007)20. __________ is a relatively complex form of compounding in which a new word is formed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of another word. (人大2007)21. Compound words consist of ___________ morphemes. (北二外2003)IV. True or False Questions.1. A morpheme must convey a lexical meaning.2. All words can be said to contain a root morpheme.3. Free morphemes can be further classified into inflectional and derivational morphemes.4. All words have morphs but not necessarily allomorphs.5. The word "modernizations" is made up of three morphemes.6. Derivational morphemes never change the class of the words to which they are attatched.7. Inflectional manifest various grammatical relations and lexical relations, such as number, tense, aspect, person, case, etc.8. The morphological rules can be generalized in spite of some exceptions.9. It is hard to believe that there is an interface between phonology and morphology.10. “Plural” is a morpheme. (大连外院2002)11. Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system of sound. (大连外院2000)12. A root is not always a free form. (大连外院2000)13. All bound morphemes are affixes. (东南大学2003)14. All words contain a root morpheme. (北二外2006)15. The words “water” and “teacher” have common phoneme and a common morpheme as well. (北二外2006)16. Root also falls into two categories: free and bound. (北二外2006)17. The word of “impossibility” contains four morphemes. (对外经贸大学2006)18. A stem is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. (对外经贸大学2006)19. The words “boys” and “raise” have a common phoneme and a common morpheme as well. (北二外2008)V. Questions.1. Analyze these words in terms of morphemes.unselfishness; justifiable; sporting; crowded; overdeveloped; naturalistically; subdivision; uninvitedly2. Language can change through blending, backformation and borrowing. Give two English words to illustrate each of them. (6 points, 清华大学2001, 2000)3. Divide the following words into Roots, IA and/or DA (5 points, 清华大学2001) Transformations, looseleaves, destructive, geese, misled4. What is the linguistic term used for the common factor of a set of verbs, such as writing, wrote, written, write and writes? (1 point, 清华大学2001)5. What are the major types of semantic changes? (20 points, 人大2007)6. Identify word formation processes (More than one process may be involved in one word) motel, ufology, babysist (6 points, 人大2004)7. What are the methods for the addition of new words in the English language? (人大2002, 10’)8. What are the differences between morphs and allomorphs? Please illustrate with one or two examples. (5 points, 对外经贸大学2006)9. How many syllables does the word “kinder”have? What are they? How many morphemes does it have? What are they? (4, 北二外2008)10. Do the suffixes –able in workable, -ness in workableness change the word class of the wordsto which they are attached? Are they bound morphemes or free morphemes? Inflections or derivations? (4, 北二外2008)11. In English the suffix “-er” can be added to some place names, as shown in Colum A; however,the same suffix may not be added to other place names, as exemplified by the impossible words given in Column B. Compare the words in Column A with those impossible ones in Column B and answer the questions that follow. (湖南大学2004)Column A : Londoner Vermonter New Yorker Newfoundlander Long Islander Column B: Torontoer Miamier Denverer Philadephiaer San Franciscoer1)In gener terms, what does the suffix mean in the words in Column A?2)As can be seen in the impossible words in Column B, the addition of the suffix to noun stemsis restricted in some way. What is the constraint on the distribution of the suffix?。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1-3章

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1-3章胡壮麟语言学重难点Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

1. 语言的定义特征1.1. 任意性1.2. 二重性1.3. 创造性1.4. 移位性1.5. 文化传递性1.6. 互换性2. 语言的功能1.1. 信息功能1.2. 人际功能1.3. 施为功能1.4. 感情功能1.5. 寒暄功能1.6. 娱乐功能1.7. 元语言功能3. 微观语言学3.1. 语音学3.2. 音系学3.3. 形态学3.4. 句法学3.5. 语义学3.6. 语用学4. 宏观语言学4.1. 心理语言学4.2. 社会语言学4.3. 应用语言学4.4. 计算语言学4.5. 神经语言学5. 重要概念及其区分5.1. 描写式&规定式5.2. 共时&历时5.3. 语言&言语5.4. 语言能力&语言应用5.5. 唯素的&唯位的5.6. 传统语法&现代语法5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为Chapter 2 Speech Sounds常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。

语言学胡壮麟第三版第三章笔记

语言学胡壮麟第三版第三章笔记Chapter 3 LexiconⅠWhat is word?1. 3 senses of word1) a physically definable unitWord may be seen as a set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.2)word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as a specific items (boy and boys are two words).3) a grammatical unitThe work rank is located between morpheme and word group.2.Identification of words1)StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.2)relative uninterruptibilityNew elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in a word.3) a minimum free formWord is the smallest unit that can be used by itself.3.Classification of wods1)Variable and invariable wordsVariable words may have inflective changes. The same word may have differentgrammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.Invariable words refer to those words that do not have inflective endings.2)grammatical words and lexical wordsThose which mainly work for constructing group are grammatical words, such as, conj., prep., art., and pron., are grammatical words also known as function words.Those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as n., v., adj.and adv., are lexical words, also known as content words.3)closed-class words and open-class wordsThe closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pron., prep., conj., art., and others.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as n.,v., adj., and many adv..4)word class: particle, auxiliaries, pro-form, determinersⅡThe formation of wordMorpheme: A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning whether it is lexical or grammatical.1.classification of morpheme1)free morpheme: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words bythemselves, are free morpheme.bound morpheme: Those that cannot occur alone, must appear with at last another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes,2)root: Root is the base form of a word that cannot be furtheranalyzed without destroyingits meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.affix: Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.stem: Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3) inflectional affix n. ----s n. ----`sv. ----ed v. ----ing w. ----ed/enadj./adv. ----er adj./adv. ----estderivational affixDifferences:1^ Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivational affixes are vey productive in making new words.2^ Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might or might not.3^ Whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence.4^ Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.2.word formation1)inflection: It indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes; and wheninflectional affixes are added, the grammatical class of theterms (to which they are attached) will not change.2)compound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, orthe way to join two separate words to produce a single form. It can be further divided into two kinds, the endocentric compound and the exocentric compound.3.Sememe Vs. Morpheme and Phoneme Vs. Morpheme1)sememe Vs. morpheme1^ one morpheme Vs. one sememe2^ one morpheme Vs. more than one sememe3^ one sememe Vs. more than one morpheme4^ morphemes that have no specific sememe5^ function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change2)morpheme Vs. phoneme1^ a single phoneme Vs. a single morpheme2^ a single morpheme Vs. multiple phoneme3^ allomorph4^ morphemic conditionsⅢLexical change1.lexical change proper1)invention2)blendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.3)abbreviation4)acronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of anorganization, which has a heavily modified headword.5)back-formationBack-formation refers to an usually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.6)analogical creation7)borrowing1^ loanwords2^ loanblend3^ loanshift4^ loan translation2.morpho-syntactical change1)morphological changeThe present section is on the inflectional side, i.e. the form of inflectional affixes.2)syntactical changeEnglish speaker today no longer uses the fifteenth century’s double.3.semantic change1)broadingBroading is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.2)narrowingNarrowing is contrary to broading: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3)meaning shiftWhat makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.4)class shift5)folk etymologyIt refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.4.phonological change1)loss2)addition3)metathesis4)assimilation5. orthographie change。

语言学(胡壮麟版)

描述功能
语言通过词汇和语法结构，能够描述和传达关于世界的信息，包括事物的性质、状态和关系等。
语言的信息功能
建立和维持社会关系
语言是人们在社会交往中建立和维持关系的工具，通过语言交流，人们可以建立友谊、合作和信任等关系。
表达情感和态度
语言不仅传达信息，还能够表达情感和态度，如喜怒哀乐、赞扬和批评等。
一个语义场由一组相关的词构成，它们共同表达一个概念。
语义的变化
语义的演变和变化，如词义的扩大、缩小、转移等。
语义
04
CHAPTER
语言的功能
传达功能
语言能够将信息从一个个体传递给另一个个体，实现信息的交流和共享。
思考功能
语言不仅是表达思想的工具，也是思考的工具。人们通过语言组织和表达思想，进而进行推理、判断和创造。
语言接触对语言发展的影响
语言融合
语言接触
06
CHAPTER
语言与文化
语言与文化的关系
01
语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化传承和交流的载体。
02
语言反映了特定民族的历史、传统、习俗和社会行为规范，是文化信息的载体。
文化对语言的影响深远，不同文化背景下形成的语言具有独特的表达方式和意义。
03
文化传统、信仰和价值观等会影响语言的表达和意义，形成特定的语言习惯和表达方式。
社会经济发展
社会经济的发展对语言的发展有着重要的影响，如随着社会经济的发展，新词汇和表达方式不断涌现。
社会文化
社会文化对语言的发展也有着重要的影响，如不同文化背景下的人们有着不同的语言表达方式和习惯。
社会因素对语言发展的影响
语言接触是指不同语言或方言之间的交流和融合，是语言发展的重要途径之一。

语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第3章

语⾔学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第3章Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase第⼀部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成1. Morpheme 词素的定义Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类①Free morpheme and bound morpheme ⾃由词素和黏着词素Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation.Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes.②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词⼲A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme.A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many othersA few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot).A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派⽣词缀Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based onsimple meaning distinctions. For example, the choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever”.4)Fourth, in English, most inflectional affixes are suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, Mary’s. But derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both at the same time. E.g. depart, teacher, international.3. Allomorph and morphological change 变体①allomorph 词素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, im-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called Allomorphs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches.②morphological change 形态变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.第⼆部分Word 词1. word 词和词项的定义Word is a typical grammatical unit between Morpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check, write, and fat. Lexical items refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms, such as boy and boys, or check, checks, checked, and checking. So Word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and Lexical Item a specific term (boy and boys are two lexical items).2. Three characteristics of word 词的三个特性①Stability 稳定性Words, concerning their internal structures, are the most stable of all linguistic units, Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. For example, the word chairman cannot be re-arranged as * manchair, the latter being an unacceptable word in English.②Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性Uninterruptibility means that new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in it. For example, nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment.③ A minimum free form 最⼩的⾃由形式Leonard Bloomfield advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” while word as “the minimum free form”. Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. For example, Is Jane coming tomorrow? Possibly.3. Classification of words 词的种类①Variable and invariable words 可变词与不变词V ariable words have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those such as since, when, seldom, hello. They don’t have inflective endings.②Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词（功能词）和词汇词（实义词）Grammatical words（function words）:Those that mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Lexical words（content words）:Those that mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are lexical words.③Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others.Open-class word: the Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventionsor discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly added to the lexical system of a language.④Word class（part of speech）词类This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar.Nine word classes were established: they were noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, article, pronoun, and interjection.Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammer.i. Particles助词Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to” , the negative marker “not”, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.ii. Auxiliaries助动词Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.iii. Pro-form代词形式The items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions are called Pro-forms. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.iv. Determiners限定词Determiners refer to those words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun group, and that determine the kind of reference the nominal group has.第三部分Word formation 词汇构成1. Word formation（1）：From Morpheme to Word 从词素到词(1) The inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, Table/tables.(2) The derivational way of formationDerivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed. It can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound).①Derivation派⽣Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. In contrast to inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.E.g. Changed: delight+ful=delightful; unchanged: non+smoker= nonsmoker②Compound合成Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, cloakroom, railway. It can be divided into two types:(1) Invention 发明法Technological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life, many new lexical items come directly from them, such as Coke, nylon.(2) Blending 混成法Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, smoke+ fog →smog; breakfast + lunch →brunch.(3) Abbreviation / Clipping 缩写法/截断法A new word is created by cutting the initial part or the final part or cutting both the initial and the final parts of the original words. E. g. telephone→phone; fanatic→fan; influenza→flu.(4) Acronym ⾸字母缩略词Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E. g. WTO→World Trade Organization(5) Back-formation 逆构词法Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E. g. editor→edit(6) Analogical creation 类推构词法The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs. E. g. work →wrought →worked.(7) Class shift 词性变换By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion. E. g. Engineer(v/n)(8) Borrowing 借⽤English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages, such as Greek, French, Spanish and other languages have all played an active role in this process. There are four types of borrowing:①Loanwords（全部借词）：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change.E. g. coup d’ état , tea , 秀，脱⼝秀②Loanblend（混合借词）：a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E. g. Chinatown 吉普车③Loanshift（转移借词）：a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E. g. artificial satellite from the Russian S putnik.④Loan translation（翻译借词）：a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, also called Calque. E. g. black humor (humour noir), found object (objet trouve).第四部分Word group and phrase 词组和短语Word group is a group of words, it is an expansion of a word.Phrase is a contraction of a clause nominal group, such as Verbal group, Adverbial group, preposition group.。

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