英美概况(英国篇5大英帝国的兴衰 )
简述英国的兴衰300
简述英国的兴衰300英国的兴衰可以追溯到公元1700年左右，当时它是世界上最强大的帝国之一。
然而，随着时间的推移，英国的地位逐渐下降，经历了一系列的挑战和困境。
在18世纪初，英国经历了工业革命，成为了世界上第一个工业化国家。
这一时期，英国的制造业迅速发展，铁路、纺织和煤矿等产业蓬勃兴起，为英国带来了巨大的财富和实力。
英国的海军力量也在这一时期得到了极大的加强，成为全球最强大的海军之一。
然而，英国在19世纪中叶面临着严重的挑战。
其他国家开始迅速迎头赶上，特别是德国和美国等新兴工业国家的崛起。
英国的制造业陷入了困境，许多传统产业开始衰落。
同时，英国还面临着世界大战和经济危机的双重打击，国家陷入了困境。
然而，在20世纪初，英国又迎来了一段相对繁荣的时期。
两次世界大战后，英国作为胜利国之一，重新获得了一定的地位和影响力。
此时的英国，虽然不再是世界上最强大的帝国，但仍然是一个重要的国家。
然而，英国的兴衰仍然没有停止。
在20世纪后半叶，英国再次面临着一系列的挑战。
与此同时，英国也开始从一个制造业国家转变为一个服务业国家。
金融、教育、医疗和文化等服务业开始崛起，在国家经济中发挥着重要的作用。
然而，英国的服务业也面临着竞争和变革的压力。
全球化的浪潮使得许多新兴市场国家迅速崛起，对英国的服务业构成了威胁。
此外，英国还面临着脱欧的挑战，这对国家的经济和政治稳定带来了不确定性。
尽管如此，英国仍然是一个重要的国家，具有较高的生活水平和文化影响力。
伦敦作为全球金融中心，吸引了大量的国际资本和人才。
英国的教育体系也享有盛誉，吸引了众多国际学生。
英国的兴衰是一个复杂而多变的过程。
从一个强大的帝国到一个面临挑战的国家，英国经历了许多艰难的时刻。
然而，英国仍然是一个重要的国家，具有较高的生活水平和文化影响力。
未来，英国仍然面临着许多挑战和机遇，需要不断适应和发展。
5-The Rise and Fall of theBritish Empire 大英帝国的兴衰
Whigs and Tories
In the mid-19th century the Whigs formed a coa1ition with dissident Tories and became the Liberal Party. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party, which still bears the nickname today.
Open Field Village
Drawbacks l. It wasted land because of fallow fields and land for paths. 2. It was wasteful of labour and time. 3. Livestock farming was difficult and diseases spread quickly on commons. Winter feed was rarely enough, so animals were usually killed in autumn and their meat was salted. 4. The open field system was a barrier to experiments.
Enclosure
In the mid-18th century the population in England increased rapidly, and most of this increase was in the towns, depending on the countryside for food. Greater productivity meant handsome profits, so landowners wanted to replace the small farms cultivated on the ―openfield‖ system by larger, economically more efficient farms with hedge-divided fields. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the ―openfield‖ system ended when the Enclosure Acts enabled wealthier landowners to seize any land to which tenants could prove no legal title and to divide it into enclosed fields.
英美概况笔记（中英文对照整理版）[1]
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英美国家概论路人整理2011-7-27目录第一章英国的国土与人民LAND AND PEOPLE (3)第二章英国的起源THE ORIGINS OF A NATION (9)第三章英国的形成THE SHAPING OF THE NATION (16)第四章向现代英国的过渡TRANSITION TO THE MODERN AGE (22)第五章大英帝国的兴衰THE RISE AND FALL OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE (28)第六章英国经济THE ECONOMY (40)第八章法律与司法机构JUSTICE AND THE LAW (49)第九章英国社会SOCIAL AFFAIRS (55)第十章体育运动SPORTS (60)第十三章美国地理位置GEOGRAPHY (66)第十四章美国人口种族POPULATION.RACE AND ETHNIC GROUPS (70)第十五章美国历史（一）AMERICAN HISTORY(I) (73)第十六章美国历史（二）AMERICAN HISTORY(II) (77)第十七章美国历史（三）AMERICAN HISTORY(III) (81)第十八章美国经济THE ECONOMY (84)第十九章政治制度POLITICAL INSTITUTION (88)第二十章美国教育EDUCATION (93)第二十一章文化建筑和音乐LITERATURE, ARCHITECTURE AND MUSIC (98)第二十二章节日和假期HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS (102)第二十二章节：HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS 节日和假期 (102)第一章英国的国土与人民Land and PeopleI. Different Names for Britain and its Parts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。
英美概况英国部分整理
EnglandOrigin of the countryIntroduction:1. prehistoric period: Iberians2. Celts (Britons): 8th -5th BC3. Roman Occupation (55 BC/ 43 AD-410 AD)4. Anglo-Saxons Conquest and Heptarchy (5th -8th c.)5. The Danish and Viking Invasion (8th c.-1066)6. Norman Conquest (1066)详细介绍：1.Between 3000 and 2000 BC, the first known settlers on the British Isles were the Iberians,relics they left was Stonehenge, which was built about 3500 years ago(2000BC) on the Salisbury Plains, Wiltshire.2.The name of Britain—Britons (tribe of Celts)Moved to Great Britain in about 700 BC (8th century)The Celts in Britain are believed to be ancestors of the Highland Scots,the Irish and the Welsh people.3.Roman Britain (43 AD—5th Century)First invasion—In August 55 BC, Julius Caesar invaded BritainSecond—Caesar's second raid in 54 BCThird and final—In 43 AD, Emperor Claudius, final and successful Roman invasion of Britain [recorded in Caesar’s diary which begun the written history of Britain]; drove the Celts into Scotland and WalesInfluence of Roman Occupation---Romans built towns, cities, temples, theaters, fine buildings “Every road lead to Rome.”---systematic city government: e.g. Manchester, Leicester, Wiltshire, etc. London, York, Bath, etc.---religion: ChristianityIn 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine to England to convert English people to ChristiansRomans Leaving BritainLeft in 410 AD1) Germanic attack in Rome;2)Invaders (Picts or Scots)4.The Anglo-Saxons (446-871) and HeptarchyJutes: KentSaxons: Essex, Sussex and WessexAngles: East Anglia, Mercia and NorthumbriaEngland: the land of the Anglesancestors of English: Anglo-SaxonsHeptarchy: these seven kingdomsWessex: dominantInfluence of Anglo-Saxons1)Brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain.The names Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday respectively derive from their gods.—Tiu—god of war—Woden—king of heaven—Thor—god of storms—Freya—goddess of peace2)The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state.1) divided the country into shires.2) established the manorial system.3) created the Witan5.Danish Invasion (8th Century—1066)8th century, the Vikings (from the Scandinavian countries: Norway, Denmark and Sweden) invaded Britain.A peace treaty: the eastern half of the island was to be subject to the Danish law and come to be known as the Danelaw.Edward the Confessor(because of his intense personal religious piety) (1042-1066)Built Westminster Abbey6.The Norman ConquestIn 1066, Edward chose Harold of Wessex to be King in his place.Duke William, often referred to as William the Conquer, challenged Harold’s succession, won the Battle of Hastings. Crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey by the Archbishop of York on Christmas, 1066Influence of Norman Conquest1. marking the formal establishment of feudalism in England （the House of Norman was the first feudal house)2. a strong Norman government:1) confiscated all the land2) the administration of justice directly dependent on the crown3) replacing the English bishops with Normans4) building the Tower of London as a military fortress5) French and French civilizationTo sum up, we usually take Celts as the native settlers in Britain.Norman Conquest was the last time of England’s being invaded in its history.~ Medieval TimeHenry II and His Legal Reform 亨利二世与法律改革-- The House of Plantagenet金雀花王朝( the second feudal house)-- Reigned over 300 years from 1154 to 1485-- 15 kingsWilliam died in Normandy in 1087,1)EldestsonRobert（Normandy）2)secondsonWilliamtheRufus（England)3)thirdsonHenry(alargesumofmoney)HenryhadhimselfcrownedasHenryIinWestminsterabbeyinAugust1100In 1154, little Henry, the great grandson of Henry I became the English King known as Henry II.He was the founder of Plantagenet dynasty.Henry II ’s Legal ReformReason: Anglo-Saxon trial by ordeals and Norman trial by duelResult :1.the circuit courts and jury systemcircuit courts:itinerant(巡回) justicesJury:12 jurors2.the English common lawBased on the Anglo-Saxon tradition and custom,or precedentsReform of the courtHenry II insisted that all clerks charged with criminal offenses should be tried in the king’s courts instead of in the Bishop’s courtConflicts between King and Becket1)In 1162, HenryII appointed him Archbishop of Canterbury, thinking he would help him with the reform of the church court.2)Direct cause:different views of a murder charge of a clerk man3)Constitutions of Clarendon in 1164 to increase the jurisdiction(管辖权) of the civil courts at the expense of the church courts,Becket refused.Famous works about Becket:BOOK:Canterbury tales byGeoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), an English poetDRAMA:Murder in the Cathedral (1935) modern poet T.S. EliotKing John and the Great Charter 约翰王与《大宪章》King John: Henry II 's third son (reign:1199-1216)Bad Reputation：-- Ganged up with careerists-- Tried to snatch the kingdom away from his brother Richard I-- Greedily collected money for himself-- Lost all the land in FranceBad Relationship with the Pope：Conflict over the candidate to be Archbishop of CanterburyKing John:Drove the monks out of the kingdom and took over the profits of their landPope:-- Closed all the churches in England and suspended public services.-- Intended to excommunicate King JohnBad Relationship with the Nobles：-- Increased taxes-- In 1213, he proposed to lead the nobles in a war to reconquer his lost lands in France, but the nobles refused to follow him.-- A number of barons met in 1214 and decided to compel the king to sign the charter they had prepared.June 19th, 1215, Magna Carta/ the Great CharterThe Great Charter: Most important document;corner stone of English history ;almost as important to the English as the Declaration of Independence to the Americans. (63 clauses条款)Significance of the Great Charter :1. the first step of constitutional experiment in England.2. protect the rights of the merchant class and thus promoted the development of commerce and handicraft,and laid the foundation for the rise of capitalist class3. set the basic rules for the English and American legal system: for life, property, and freedom4. limit the power of the king.5. the turning point in British history: challenge the feudal society.800th Anniversary in 2015 (All these rules, designed to protect the privileged class at first, were later extended to the broad masses of common people and established the basis for protection of human rights in the Western World)The Hundred Years’ War英法百年战争(1337-1453)A series of wars fought between England and France over territory, trade and the throne.Reason:Territory: The English were eager to regain Henry II's French land lost by King John.Trade: the English wanted to expand foreign markets.Throne: Edward III vs. Philip VI (Valois House in France)Stages of the Hundred Years’ War:At first:English (Edward III) were successful; won a land battle near Calais at Crecy and then took Calais; put the French King into prison.Later:After a long peaceful lull, English (HenryⅤ) won victory at Argencourt; Henry was recognized to French throne in 1420.(historical play, Henry V byShakespeare；movies，Argencourt and Henry V )After French King’s death:Joan of Arc drove the English out of France in 1453. By 1453 Calais was the only part of France that was still in the hands of the English.Significance of Hundred Years’ WarA blessing for both countries.1. English was established as the official language in Britain rather than French. [language]2. Development of woolen textile industry [commercial development]3. The rise of merchants and craftsman due to the need of money (the rise of middle class)4. Sped up the decline of feudalism and reduction of importance of knights because of gunpowder (the fall of the nobles)5. Two national states [Britain and France; not integrated]The Wars of Roses (1455—1485)A war for the throne between the House of York(white rose) and the House of Lancaster (red rose).Actually, they were both the branches of House of Plantagenet.Reason: After the Hundred Years’ War, nobles, driven out of France, wanted to gain wealth and power at home. Result:The House of Lancaster won and their leader Henry Tudor became King Henry VII and started the rule of the House of Tudor (1485-1603).~ Transitional PeriodRenaissance in England英国文艺复兴House of Tudor (1485-1603). Henry VII, 1485The Tudor Monarchy-- Strengthened and developed rapidly-- Secure its peace by careful diplomacy and graceful isolationism-- Built navy to protect and promote the development of trade and industryGreat Events Witnessed in Tudor Monarchy1.Discovery of American Continent in 14922.Renaissance (it was during this monarchy that the Renaissance spread into England)3.Reformation宗教改革Renaissance 文艺复兴Literal meaning: “rebirth”, rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek cultures in Northern ItalyModern meaning: variety of changes which Europe underwent politically, economically and culturally between the middle of 1350-1600The period of 5th and 15th centuries were called the Middle Ages.Ottoman Empire vs.East Roman EmpireCause: In 1453, Ottoman Empire (Turkey) took Constantinople and overran Greece and the Balkans. Greek scholars fled with manuscripts of classics.The three Italian writers and their works（Literary Masters) 文学三杰Dante with his Divine Comedy 但丁《神曲》Boccaccio and his Decameron 博伽丘《十日谈》Petrarch and his sonnets 彼得拉克《十四行诗》Three Italian Artists: 艺术三杰Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa,The Last Supper)Michelangelo (David,Genesis创世纪）Raphael （大量圣母像；The Sistine Madonna西斯廷圣母；School of Athens雅典学院）1.Believe that men could achieve wonders through their own efforts2.No longer regarded this life as a mere penance to be endured by good Christians3.Men had the right to enjoy the beauty of this life and strive to enrich it4.humanists/ humanismRenaissance in EnglandWhy late: endless wars in Britain and geographic locationWhen: House of Tudor, 1485catalyst: printing technique by William Caxton in 1476Elizabethan drama:1) Christopher Marlowe: Tamberlaine, Dr. Faustus, The Jew of Malta, Edward II.2) Ben Johnson: Volpone, The Alchemist, Bartholomew Fair3) William Shakespeare:William ShakespeareShakespeare's birthplace: Stamford-upon-Avon, Warwick shireWrote 37 plays : comedies, tragedies and historical playsComedies 四大喜剧The Merchant of Venice《威尼斯商人》A Midsummer Night's Dream《仲夏夜之梦》As You Like It《皆大欢喜》Twelfth night《第十二夜》Tragedies 四大悲剧:Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, King Lear;Poet:Sonnets: Sonnet 18 “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day?”Other Literary AchievementsPoet: Edmund Spencer: The Faerie QueenPoet: John Milton: Paradise LostHumanist: Thomas More: UtopiaStatesman and philosopher : Francis Bacon: EssaysReformation in England and Queen Elizabeth I’s Time英国宗教改革及伊丽莎白时期Major churches in the worldIn Middle East: In the Far East:1) Judaism 1) Hinduism2) Christianity 2) Buddhism3) IslamismChristianity in EnglandNearly 1000 years from 597 AD since St. Augustine landed and built the first monastery in CanterburyBenefits besides religious belief:---Latin language and ancient classics---church schools, e.g. Oxford, Cambridge---early techniques: masons and glass-makers---Roman cultureThe Catholic Church in the Middle AgesThe Catholic Church: dominant in the Middle Ages: either believer or paganProblems:1. Power abuse: put the pagans to death2. Corruption:a) tithe (a regular tax, one-tenth of the farm produce);b) selling indulgences and church postsRevolt of the ProtestantsPioneer in religious reformation: Martin Luther from Germany-- A monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation.-- He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money.-- Justification by faith “因信称义”(to read the Bible instead of listening to what the Pope said)ProtestantismProtestants/ Puritans: to purify the Catholic church by getting rid of bishops and the old ritualsBelief:---Predestined---Prepare for grace by reading the Bible, and by living as good and decent life as they could---Advocated a strict moral code---Stressed the virtues of self-discipline, thrift and hard workHenry VIII' s Reformation in England 亨利八世的改革Reasons:1) Encouraged by the success of Martin Luther2) The privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented by many people3) Henry VIII believed the monarchy would establish an absolute power without the Pope’s interference Immediate cause: Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Argon because she could not produce a male heir for him.Process1. Declared churchmen guilty agents of the Pope and not forgive them until they acknowledged him head of the Church of England.2. Suppression of the monasteries and plunder of properties of church3. Married Anne Boleyn4. Parliament passed two acts:1)1534 Act of Succession; 2) 1535 Act of SupremacyResults1.Henry VIII got the title of Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1535.2.also increased the importance of Parliament3. power to appoint high English churchmen and enjoy all the income which was formerly given to the Pope.4. Catholicism declined and Protestantism became a major branch of Christianity.Queen Mary-- After Henry VIII’ s death，he religious conflict between Catholicism and Protestantism was beyond reconciliation-- Catherine's daughter，a Catholic-- Persecuted Protestants--“Bloody Mary”Queen Elizabeth IAnne Boleyn's daughterPro-Protestant from the startCompromise: not persecute CatholicsFrom her, England maintained Protestant ever since.执政时期：1. Foreign policy: made use of the contradictions between two Catholic powers: France and Spain2. Economy: charter companies（granted charters to English merchants）（ex，East India Company）3. War with Spanish Armada西班牙无敌舰队in 1588:4. Social life: brick and stone houses; pillows; carpets; carriages;5. Literature: esp. drama6. Travel and adventureElizabeth I was regarded as the foundation layer of the British Empire.the Oscar award-winning film Elizabeth I~ Modern TimeThe Two Kings of the House of Stuart 斯图亚特王朝二国王Elizabeth died in 1603 without an heir to succeed her, her nephew, James VI of Scotland, became the English king known as James I, which was the beginning of the House of Stuart.James I (reign: 1603-1625)Religious Controversy: repressed both Protestants and Catholics1. Puritan ask for further Reformation; but James declared “No Bishop, No King”2. James I suspected as a secret Catholic.James I's Policy: “make them conform or harry them from the land”James I took drastic measures to make the Puritans to conform to the Church of England, otherwise, they would be persecuted. Many Puritans fled England.In 1620, a group of 102 Puritans, called the Pilgrim Fathers, sailed from Plymouth in the ship Mayflower to America.King James I: Protestant VS Guy Fawkes: CatholicReason：The Catholics in England were opposed to James I and his succession to the throne since he came from Scotland, a pure Protestant countryGunpowder Plot, Nov. 5th（failed）Guy Fawkes Day, annual celebrationPolitically 詹姆士一世-- Believe in “Divine Right of Kings”-- Ruled without Parliament for seven years-- Academically King James Bible （the translation of James I）Charles I (reign: 1625-1649) （James I ‘s son）not capable as his father-- Believed in “Divine Right of Kings”-- Continuous religious controversy-- Bad relationship with the Parliament---e.g. 1. conflict over monopolies---e.g. 2. 1st Parliament in 1625: conflict over import revenue; dissolved Parliament（He started collecting import duties and raising forced loans without the agreement of the Parliament.）---e.g. 3: 3rd Parliament in 1628: Petition of Right（the second Magna Carta）, which echoed the Magna Carta and further limited the military power of king---e.g. 4: force the Scots to accept the textbook of Church of England; led to warsummoned for money and dissolved the Parliament in 1640Known as Short Parliament（only two weeks）---e.g. 5: was defeated in the war with Scotstreaty: ₤850 a day to Scottish armysummoned (for money )the 5th Parliament in 1640Known as Long Parliament (1640-1653)This Parliament existed for more than ten years during the English Bourgeois Revolution until Cromwell dissolved it in April 1653.The Militia Bill: deprived military command from the CrownThe Great Remonstrance: limited the King's religious powerReplaced the King’s counselors by ministers approved by ParliamentThe English Civil War and the Time After It 英国资产阶级革命及革命之后Conflicts: Church( reformed in the Reformation)king vs parliamentNobles(most perished during the Hundred Years’ War and the Wars of Roses)Development of Parliament：1265 formed;Simon de Montfort↓Developed in the House of Tudors, esp. Henry VIII's time↓Rivaled against the King James I and Charles ITrigger of War（reason）Charles I marched to the House of Commons to arrest John Pym and other four radical MPs.Voices in the ParliamentRight Wing“no victory, no defeat”policyLeft Wingmore revolutionary;-- Charles I and his Royalists/ Cavaliers-- Parliamentarians/ Roundheads-- Oliver Cromwell and his New Model Army(These soldiers were mostly devout Protestants. They thought were fighting for God’s cause charged fearlessly, singing psalms. That’s why the Civil War was also called the Puritan Revolution.)-- In June ,1645,Cromwell and Fairfax defeated the royalist army.-- By autumn 1646,Parliament controlled most of England-- In May,1646,Charles I could no longer struggle and surrenderedIn 1646, Parliament won and Charles I gave himself to the Scottish armyIn 1647, Charles was transferred by Scots to Parliament for a payment of ₤400,000.In 1649, King was sentenced “Tyrant, Traitor, Murderer and public Enemy”and was executed.Charles I on the Scaffold 断头台After the Civil Wars(Taxes were increased to keep the army and Cromwell became tyrannical and unpopular.)Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard succeeded him But abdicated.Restoration (1660): Charles II, son of Charles I 斯图亚特王朝复辟A new Parliamentary election was held in 1660. The new Parliament negotiated with Charles I’s son and asked him back to be the King under their limitation. The Republic was thus put to an end. The Restoration of the House of the Stuart.Glorious Revolution (1688):(Upon Charles II’s death,his brother, a Catholic,James II succeeded.He refused to give up his belief and the Protestant English couldn’t agree to.The leading figures invited William, the nephew and son-in-law of James II, and Mary, the daughter of James II to come back from Holland and rule England. They accepted the invitation and landed an army in England in November 1688. James II fled to France)Bill of Rights 1689-- Confirmed constitutional monarchy with parliamentary supremacy(guaranteed free speech within both houses of Parliament and excluded any Catholics from succession to the English throne.)Industrial Revolution in Britain 英国工业革命The Industrial Revolutions in Human HistoryThe 1st Industrial RevolutionDefinition: The Industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.Reasons:1. huge market:---domestic market---colonial markets in North America, India and other colonies(Britain won in the Seven Years War from 1756 to 1763)2.enormous wealth from the colonies: business trade and slave trade(East India Company:had a trading monopoly in India and parts of East Aida.The Royal African Company: involved in trade with Africa, the slave trade in particular. )3. Enclosure movement圈地运动Other factors:1) good location and near to seaports2) engineer had good training;3) inventors were respected;4) “Protestant work ethic”and laissez faire;5) broadened vision and aggressive spiritProcess of Industrial Revolution--- First began in the textile industry1) 1733, flying shuttle,飞梭John Kay, sped up hand weaving;2) 1766, spinning jenny, 珍妮纺纱机James Hargreaves, enabled to spin many threads at a time;3) 1784, power loom, Edmund Cartwright, enabled weaving to catch up with spinning;（established a great factory by applying power-driven mules and powerlooms in 1784and he became the Father of the Factory System in England.）EX:Spinning Jenny by James HargreavesPrepared the way for a new system of production: large-scale industry.Transportation industry1. In 1785, James Watt modified and improve Thomas Newcomer’s steam engine.2. In 1814, George Stephenson built the first steam locomotive.（Marked the beginning of a new stage of the Industrial Revolution.）3. In 1825, t he first railway was completed and by 1850, Britain completed its railway system nationwide.ResultsPositive1)“workshop of the world”2) mass urbanization: new cities like Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham and Sheffieldnegative1)simplified class structure; gap between rich and poor2)terrible working conditionThe serious problem of unemployment, over-population, bad living conditions and so on made the crime rates in London become the highest in the world.Literary works：Charles Dickens’ novels, such as Oliver Twist.~ Imperialist TimeQueen Victoria and the British Empire维多利亚与大英帝国的建立Britain after Industrial Revolution-- “workshop of the world”-- London---the financial center of world-- The English language was spread all over the worldThe British Empire was formed.(completely established)Queen VictoriaReign: 1837 to 1901Victoria's TimeShe encouraged further industrialization, the building of railways and the growth of trade and commerce.Sciencethe publication of Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859“survival of the fittest适者生存”Victorian NovelsWilliam T hackeray萨克雷（Vanity Fair名利场）Charles Dickens狄更斯（A Tale of Two Cities双城记，Oliver Twist雾都孤儿，David Copperfield大卫科波菲尔，Great Expectations远大前程）Bronte sisters（Emily Bronte Wuthering Heights呼啸山庄，Charlotte Bronte，Jane Eyre简爱，Anne Bronte）George Eliot乔治·艾略特Their works played an important role in pushing forward social reforms and promoting the development of British values.Victoria's Society-- strict discipline-- careful behavior-- harmonious relationship--“Victorian”: decency and morality, self-satisfaction based on wealth, and great industrial and scientific development. --"the polite society"The British EmpireLand:1/5 of the world’s dry land(1/4 of the world’s landmass):135 times as large as BritainPopulation:560 million;ten times as large as that of BritainForeign expansion and aggression:the sun-never-setting”empireThe Formation of the EmpireFoundation: Elizabeth I’s timeEstablishment: 18th and 19th c, Victoria.Processes: Aggression(侵略) against national states and annexation（合并，兼并）of uninhabited or sparsely-populated wild landSpearhead (先锋): Chartered Companies, e.g. East India CompanyMethod: “Flag follows trade”Aggression:Southeast AsiaIndia and ChinaIndia: The British government took over control of India in 1858 and Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1876.China: Opium War in 1840; the Treaty of Nanking (1842): heavy indemnity, to cede to Britain the island of HK, to open five ports to foreign commerceAnnexation: North America and OceaniaAmerica: English colonists first in Jamestown,1607; westward movementCanada: defeat France in Seven Years' War (1756-1763);Australia and New Zealand: discovered by James Cook in 1770s---drove the nativesAmerica independent in 1783; the other three became dominions of the British EmpireAfrica1. Egypt: Suez Canal, 18822. 20C,occupied Gold Coast (now Ghana), Nigeria, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda and Zambia.3. South Africa: gold and diamonds4. After the Boer War,the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910,the 4th dominion of British EmpireThe Decline and Fall of the British Empire 大英帝国的衰落Decline of the British EmpireTime of imperialism帝国主义: expansion and invasionConflict: England was dominant in the world colonization, while other younger imperialist countries were eager to have a share.Military blocs:Central Powers：Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey（Ottoman Empire）the Allies：Britain, France, Russia, Italy（后来加入）, the United States (1917)Outbreak of WWI导火索：June 28, 1914, the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo by a young Slav nationalistThe Process of the War1. German (ally of Austria-Hungary) declared war on Russia (ally of Serbia) on Aug. 1st and on France on Aug 3 since France rejected being neutral.2. German invaded Belgium and Britain felt German’s threat and went into war with Germany.3. Australia and New Zealand sent support in Gallipoli.The war finally ended in 1918 with the victory for the Allies.Paris ConferenceParis Conference, in Versailles on January 18th, 1919.The Allies divided the colonies of Germany, Austro-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and imposed much indemnity on the defeated countries.Influence of WWI on BritainWinner but also loser1.Drained of manpower2.Britain lost 70% of its merchant ships and a large amount of money.（Britain lost the sea supremacy.）3.Changed from a creditor to a debtor nation4.London was replaced by New York as the world’s leading financial center.5.Foreign trade declined to about only half of the prewar total.6.Disillusionment of the soldiers: Lost Generation（Hemingway The Sun Also Rises）（Large-scale strikes and hunger marches caused political unrest which led to four general elections in just over five years. The general election of 1924 brought the Labor Party to power for the first time. ）Britain after WWI1920s: Roaring TwentiesEconomy downturn:---slack business---closed factories---soaring taxes---unemployment---The Great Depression (1929-1939)WWII (1939-1945)Continuation of WWIGermany: lost all colonies, disarmed, paid reparations;Great Depression归咎经济萧条于凡尔赛条约Adolf Hitlter（came to power in 1933）:aroused nationalism and racismBritain: foreign policy known as nonintervention and appeasementTogether with France signed the Munich Agreement with Hitler, planning to trade Sudetenland (other countries’ land) for peace.Outbreak of WWIISept.1, 1939, German's attack on PolandBritain in WWIIForced to declare war on Germany-- ill prepared and repeatedly defeated-- War Cabinet and Churchill as Prime Minister in1940-- War-time speeches(King’s speech)Nazi:Germany,Italy,JapanAnti-Nazi:Britain,France,Russia,America,ChinaEnd of WWIIGermany surrendered unconditionally on May 7, 1945Influence of WWII on Britain1.London was repeated bombed by German planes and was nearly destroyed.2.357,000 people were killed or missing and 475,000 were wounded.3.Lost navy supremacy4.In deep debt to AmericaDisintegration of British Empire1.British colonies fought for independence one after another.2.More than 20 countries won their independence3.By the year 1970, Britain is now what it was before its foreign expansion。
英国崛起和衰弱的过程
英国崛起和衰弱的过程英国崛起的进程是从16世纪开始的,直到19世纪英国进入最辉煌时代。
英国崛起和衰弱的过程有哪些的呢?本文是整理英国崛起和衰弱的过程的资料，仅供参考。
英国崛起和衰弱的过程大英帝国的雏形成于17世纪初，此时英格兰已经在北美建立了多片殖民地，这些殖民地包括了日后的美国、加拿大的大西洋省份以及加勒比海上的一些小岛屿例如牙买加和巴巴多斯。
英格兰的美洲殖民地正通过战争与殖民逐步扩大，通过英荷战争，英国获得了新阿姆斯特丹(纽约)。
殖民地不断向西扩展。
七年战争中英格兰击溃了法国，并在1760年占领了新法兰西的全部地区，使得英国获得了北美更大地区的控制权。
1757年普拉西战役(Battle of Plassey)的胜利让英国东印度公司获得了印度孟加拉邦的统治权，1770年因对该邦过度征税而恶化的饥荒引起了英国国内的争议。
到了19世纪，东印度公司已经几乎控制了印度全境英国1882年对埃及的军事占领(最直接的起因是为了保护苏伊士运河) 确立了英国对尼罗河地区的控制。
这又进一步导致了1896至1898年英国对苏丹的征服大英帝国也在维多利亚女王时代纪初达到鼎盛，领土约3367万平方千米，是世界陆地总面积的四分之一，是人类史上面积最大的国家。
中期尤其是第二次世界大战结束之后，随着全球民族主义运动的兴起英国殖民统治发生严重危机;在这种情况下英国被迫允许广大的殖民地独立或半独立，为了继续在之前广大殖民地地区发挥重要影响力，英国政府倡议督导建立了一个和平组织——“英联邦”;前英国大多数殖民地独立而成的国家加入了该组织英国崛起之路英国崛起之路(一)：随着罗马(Roman)军队于公元5世纪时(401-410年)最终撤出不列颠(Britannia，古凯尔特语，意为“五彩斑斓的土地”)，不列颠岛南部随后进入了盎格鲁——撒克逊(Anglo-Saxon)时代。
余志远《英国国家概况》笔记和课后习题详解(英帝国的兴起和衰落(1688—1990))【圣才出品】
第5章英帝国的兴起和衰落(1688—1990)5.1 复习笔记Ⅰ. Whigs and ToriesⅡ. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th CenturyⅢ. The Industrial Revolution (1780—1830)Ⅳ. The Chartist Movement (1836—1848)Ⅴ. Trade Unions and the Labour PartyⅥ. Colonial Expansion1. The growth of dominions2. The Conquest of India3. The Scramble for Africa4. Aggression against ChinaⅦ. Twentieth Century1. Britain and the First World War2. Britain Between the Two World Wars3. Britain and the Second World War4. Postwar BritainⅠ. Whigs and ToriesThese two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688). The Whigs were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.Ⅰ. 辉格党和托利党这两大党派起源于光荣革命时期(1688)。
19世纪早期，辉格党和托利党联合，后来变成了自由党。
托利党是保守党的前身。
Ⅱ. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century1. Farming was an important occupation in England in the 18th century.2. In the mid-18th century the population in England increased rapidly, depending on the countryside for food.3. Enclosure became more frequent after 1740 and climaxed during the turn of the century. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results.Ⅱ. 18世纪晚期的农业变化1. 18世纪，农业是英国一个重要的职业。
英美概况英国的扩张（英文版）
Small Island，Big worldAs it is a fact that England has been a big country in the world for a long period,not only on the land ,but also on the sea.The British Empire was the largest country at that time,which occupied about 33 million square kilometers,taken up one fifth of the world’s total dry land and about 135 tomes as large as Great Britain.It ruled over a population of 560 million,which was more than ten times as large as that of Britain.It was called an empire “on which the sun never set”.Because on almost all the continents of the world Britain had its colonies that kept the sun can be seen on the sky all the time.Britain’s Overseas ExpansionBritish overseas expansion was clearly part of an older tradition of European empire building.They traced this back to classical Greece and Rome,Spanish and Portuguese expansion following Columbus’ voyage to the new world.Britain’s overseas expansion was begin with several battles against Spanish during Elizabeth ’era.Elizabeth avoided open hostility with Spain,but she secretly encouraged English seadogs to raid Spanish colonies and plunder the Spanish ships that were returning back home to Spain.At first,the Spanish king did not know that Britain was their most dangerous rival or Elizabeth’s intention until Spanish king Philip was at the helm of the state.So ,in 1588,the king dispatched a fleet of 130 vessels which named “the Invincible Fleet ”to England.The fleet sailed up the English Channel and a large naval battle out.The English battleships threw their enemies into panic with fire ships.The badly battered the Spanish’s fleet fled to northward in confusion.Caught in a storm ,many of the Spanish warships died and only half of them survived and went back to Spain,never dare to come to England again.The lost of the war made Spain lose its lead position on the sea,while ,on the other hand,Britian could take over Spanish power became the leader.The victory not only established the position of England as a major sea power but also paved the way for its foreign expansion as a colonizing nation.What’s more,British overseas expansion helped the state gather many property for this empire’s construction.British Foreign ExpansionIn the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,Britain experience the Industrial Revolution.It is a big event for all the British.During the Industrial Revolution,a varity of chater companies were the tentacles and they spearheaded the foreign expansion and colonization.These companies,such as the East India Company,had the right to use the English Navy.Charter companies would first force a foreign country to open its market,then they would control the market and establish the British sphere of influence.If the British had occupied the land,the natives would have to leave their land or controlled by them.At the same,as a result of the Industrial Revolution,the empire was quite eager for raw material and expanding its foreign market.So the Britain began to expand its colonies all over the world.The expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland,soon,many continents had became British colonies.In Asia,the East India company was founded in 1600.At first,it traced with India through a few trading posts it had managed to secure on the coast and the southern tip of the peninsula.They also managed to edge out the French and Portuguese colonists who had also come for conquest.By 1819 the British conquest of India was almost complete.The British aggression caused angeramong the natives.In 1857,a large anti–aggression mutiny broke out when the colonial authority ordered the hired native Indian soldiers to use greased catridges.Many of the Indian troops were from the Hindus,who regarded touching of the fat of a cow as contamination worse than death,and the Mohammedans who were also horrified by the fat of the swine.Many parts of the country were involved in the revolt.After the mutiny was suppressed,the control of India was passed to British Crown in 1858,and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.After conquering India,British merchants tried to make a profit in China.But because the Chinese economy was still based on agriculture and self–sufficiency,British used to suffer a deficit in the early trades.To make a profit,British merchants started to import opium into China from India .After China banned the opium trade in1799,still some British merchants continued to smuggle opium into China .In 1839,the Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu ordered the confiscation of about 20 000 chests of opium and burnt them at Canton.The British used this as a excuse and launched a war of aggression against China in 1840.The British troops occupied Hong Kong in 1841,and invaded Zhenjiang before threatening Beijing itself.Due to failure of the Opium War,the Qing dynasty signed the Treaty of Nanjing,which included China ceded Hong Kong to British,opened five ports to British trade and many money to Britain .Among all the colonies of Britain ,Hong Kong was the last one to get its independence until 1997.As for other areas of Asia ,Btitish invaded Burma and occupied the coastal areas.At the same time,Singapore was forced to become British colony.So,Britain had a strategic base to the Indian Ocean and the Far East.After that,British power could expand to the whole Malaysia.It controlled the Strait of Malacca and built the Straits Settlements.In Africa,at the end of the 19 century,this continent is the focus of British colonial expansion.As for its abundant mineral resources, British wanted to control this area and get the resources for their industrial development .Besides,Btitish confined to a number of forts and slave trading posts on the West Coast.The Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip and Egypt in the northern part of the continent were the two chief centers of British advance in Africa.Britain was eager to control the Cape of Good Hope in order to protect its route to India. After England seized Cape Town from Dutch in 1806,English setters began to flock in and they brought in the English language.Then the English colonists pushed northward until the South Africa Union was organized by the English Parliament in 1910.Britian was also interested in controlling Egypt and Sudan.Egypt and France built the Suze Canal which was opened to navigation in 1869.In 1875,the British government bought half of the Suez Canal shares from the bankrupt Egyptian ruler,while the other half was still held by the French .After fierce struggle,the British drove the French from Egypt and gained control of the Suez Canal in 1882.The British suppressed a rebellion and occupied Egypt.By the beginning of the twentieth century,about one third of Africa was controlled by British colonialists.In East Africa,British occupied Somali,Zanzibar,Malawi and Buganda in 1980s and 1990s.In South Africa ,the British South Africa Company invaded to Zambia in 1890.In North America,when the old colonial powers:Portugal,Spain were concentrating their attention on dominating on the sea the deserted east coast of North American became the first British colonial areas of activity.The early immi grants were actually “pushed out of Europe” because they refused to conform to the rules they did not like in their home country .They hated the system which had impoverished and persecuted them. The first colony was Newfoundland,established in 1583.Until 1733, 13 colonies on the east coast of North America were under British control.In the 18th century the population in the British colonies inNorth America quickly increased from 260000 to 2, 3 million within a fewdecades(1700-1770). Also, 3, 4 million slaves were brought to the British colonies from Africa between 1162 and1807. The settlers in the colonies were mostlyself-governed while still under rule of the English Crown.But conflicts started. Additional taxes on tea or legal documents led to discrepancies. The settlers rejected any sort of taxation .The confrontation tightened up through the Townshend Acts or the Boston Massacre.The reaction of the settlers was for instance the Boston Tea Party in 1773. After several tough battles,i n 1776 the Declaration of Independence was signed. In the North American Independence War (1776-1783) Britain had to admit defeated and with the Peace of Paris in 1783 acknowledged the independence of the colonies. At the early 17 century,France and Britain began to compete in establishing colonies in Canada.But after seven years war ,Britain defeat France and monopolized Canada in1763.by the 1840s, British North America had 1.5 million people: 650,000 in Lower Canada, 450,000 in Upper Canada, and more than 300,000 in Atlantic Canada.In Latin American,British began to immigrate to Bahama Islands and controlled it in 1783.After that,British could controlled Caribbean.In Oceania,as a newly found continent ,it was a large continent of low populationdensity.During 1583 and 1587,a British named James Cook investigated the east coast of Australia and claimed the east coast region for Britain,naming it New South Wales.The British began to immigrant to the land.In 1788,the British government began to transport convicts to Australia and established some penalty settlements for these convicts.As more and more free colonists had come to settle,the British government was forced to stop transferring convicts to Australia after 1840.The sudden discovery of gold in Australia led to the gold rushes which brought large numbers of free immigrants to Australia,resulting in the founding of six separate colonies.In 1901,the six separate and self-governing colonies were united to form one dominion----the independent Commonwealth of Australia. Until 1900 Australia became profitable exporters of wool and gold.At the southeast to the Australia land, lying another country----New Zealand, originally settled by Maoris,was first discovered by Dutch in1642.James Cook visited New Zealand in the 1770s and claimed it for England.English missionaries began to arrive in the early nineteenth century before the New Zealand Company started systematic colonization in the1840s.New Zealand achieved self-government in 1852 .Then Britain had completed its control in the Oceania,this area also became one of British accesses to raw materials for the industrial constriction and foreign market for their goods.Decline of the British EmpireThe old Btitish colonial system began to decline in the 18th century.during the longperiod of unbroken Whig dominance of domestic political life,the Empire became less important and less well-regarded,until an ill-fated attempt to reverse the resulting“salutary neglect”provoked the American War of Independence,depriving Britain of her most populous colonies.Although Britain was the first country to industrialise,other countries,such as Germany,United States also took rapidly step to start their industrialization,Britain experienced real competition abroad.Especially after the World War 1,British suffered a heavy lose,which led to debt accumulation,loss of capital markets and manpower deficiencies in the staffing of far-flung imperial posts in Asia and the African colonies.The Empire’s end began with the onset of the World War 2,when a deal was reached between the British government,and the Indian independence movement,whereby the Indians would cooperate and remain loyal during the war,after which they would be grantedindependence.Following India’s lead,nearly all of Britain’s other colonies would become independent over the next two decades.This vast colonial empire finally out of sight.Effect of British Foreign ExpansionThe foreign expansion ,as for the Britain,has reached their goals----achieve accesses to more materials and foreign markets.Through the expansion all over the world,British got a large amount of capital fund,which contributed quite a lot to British economic construction.Cities grew and prospered with the development of industry and foreign trade.The Strand in London became the finest street in Europe.Fleet Street flourished as a publishing center.British foreign expansion has changed people’s life.“Respectable”districts for rich people in the near suburbs were expanding.A middle class house in England in the nineteenth century commonly had there or fourservants ,usually women,while a rich house had many more.But the majority of workers excluded from a decent life.The street swarmed with barefooted children who wore very few clothes that were no protection against rain and wind.Many children were forced to go to factories to work more than 12 hours a day at the age of eight or nine.An increasing number of people required the government to solve these problems.Under the pressure of public demand,the government took some measures to ensure workers rights and mitigate the social conflicts.When it comes to the colonies,British expansion was a disaster for the colonial people.After the settler arrive at a new place,they would try every method to make the colonial people givein.When the land was under their control,they plundered the raw materials and bullied the locals.They had to leave their home land for decades of years before independence.The plunder also slow down the economic development of the colonies.However,on the other hand,since the Britain was more developed than any other countries at the time,the colonialists brought many advanced technology,culture and experience,which helped the colonies developed,anyhow.Although the colonial era has passed,we must bear in mind a saying“Backwardness will lead to defeat”.Only our nation is strong enough can we avoid bullied by the stronger countries.下面是赠送的团队管理名言学习，不需要的朋友可以编辑删除谢谢1、沟通是管理的浓缩。
英美概况英国部分Word版
Chapter OneBritishSection one :the country and its people and position :name : The United kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (U.K)position：To the west and off the European Continent, containing the Great Britain and the northern part of Ireland.Territory proportion: approximately 240,000 square km.Population : 62.262millionThree political parts: England, Wales and Scotland England (capital city: London):the biggest ,the most developed as well as the most populated country in the U.K (capital city: London)Scotland (capital city:Edinburgh):Wales :smallest partIreland :Henry VIII was the first king to bring Ireland under control; gain its independence in 1927.2.Geographic Features:Northeast to the European Continent and east to the Atlantic, to its northeast is a channel called English Channel between the U.K and France. Neighboring country that share border : Ireland only Britain is an island country, more than1,000kilometres from south to north and 500kilometres form east to west.High Land zone：in north and westLow Land zone: in the south and east (including London).3.English TunnelFinished in 1994,was build up by private companies from U.K and France.4. Climate and Weather :Climate : maritime climate .Main character : abundant and evenly distributed rainfall. Autumn is the rainiestseasonInfluential factors: North Atlantic Drift(warm)Southwesterly wind(warm and wet.winter)Weather: changeable5.inland water :Longest river : Severn RiverMost important and second longest river: Thames River Lakes :in the Lake District6.People and languages :Main peoples: Celts and Anglo-SaxonsLanguages :English is overwhelming, some people in speaks Geltic Language7.Religion:The majority of the British people believe Christianity.Religious education and collective worship are required by British law.8.national flag :The Union Jack or Union FlagSection two : the British Government1.Political system：Constitutional MonarchyDefinition : it means the head ofstate is monarch withlimited powers.Themonarch reigns(统治), butdoes not rule（统制）ernment Component:Central government :consists of Monarch, Parliament and CabinetLocal governments3.Structure of the British government:The head ---- monarchLegislature institution : Parliament(consists House ofCommons and House of Lords)Executive Institution: Cabinet(consists of Prime Minister and Ministers of Civil service)Judicial Institution: court of appeal(supreme court)subordinate to House Of Lord4.Definations:The general idea of government :Technically speaking, British government or refers to the Cabinet(nuclear).This kind of government is called Parliamentary government or Cabinet government.The queen (Victoria ,Elizabeth….) ：Reigns but does not rulepersonifies the country,the symbol of unityAppoint the Prime Minister and other Ministers,the bills need her approval before going into effectThe parliament :Law making body ,need the approval of the monarchConsists of three parts: the monarch, the House Of Lord and the House of Common,It don’t have the executive power.The House Of Lord:The upper house of the Parliament ,unelected, consist of clergy(神职人员) and members of peerage.Debating place:the Palace of WestminsterBestowed with judicial power.The Lord Chancellor:the presider of The House Of Lord as well as a member in Cabinet, he works in Department for Constitutional Affairs.head of the judiciary of England and Wales,serving as the President of the Supreme Court of England and Wales.The house of common:The centre of the parliamentary powerMain function:to pass laws, bills and acts of Parliamentto scrutinize, criticize and restrain the actions ofthe governmentto influence the future government policyDefinition :democratically elected bodythe source of the vast majority of government ministers There is a elected speakerbills normally originate in the House of Commons. Only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or SupplyThe cabinet :responsible to Parliament for the administration of national affairs.The Cabinet is the most powerful and it serves as the nucleus of the Government.Debate place :Downing street.No 10 Downing Street is a historic building that is also a place of work. It is a symbol of Government and the home to the Prime Minister and his family. Establishment time：1856supreme decision-making bodyThe Prime Minister :monarch's principal advisorappointed by monarchNo 10 Downing Street is a historic building that is also a place of work. It is a symbol of Government and the home to the Prime Minister and his family.Local government :The English government is a three-tiered government: central government, county government and district government. The central government enforces laws through local governments.Section 3:British Laws and Politics Laws :judiciary &constitutionJudiciary :In the structure of the U.K central government, the Court of Appeal, which is subordinate to the House of Lord, is in charge of the judiciary issues.British judiciary consists of 2 branches-------civil law（citizen s’duties and obligations） criminal law(define and enforce obligations of a person)，It’s not necessary to pick up jury in the course of the civil trail while criminal trails have to be held in open court for the criminal law assume the innocent of the accused until he was proved to be guilty by a smoking gun.(reasonable doubt) In the process of the criminal trail by jury. The judge pass the result issued by the jury.Jury system(mostly used in criminal trial)Definition :In the United kingdom the court is open to the public and the jury is used during the trial.12members,random selection,obligation, chosen by both side(the plaintiff and the defendant)Unanimous verdictConstitution :No written constitution in U.K, it’s function is embodied by several separate lawsFour elements of the British legal ：acts of the parliament/Statutory Law（国内成文法）, common law(公民法),convention(惯例、习惯法),EU legislation（欧盟法）Barrister -------inn court, bar examinationPolitics :Politic system :a two-party political system.▪political parties:▪the Whig Party—Liberal Party▪the Tory Party—Conservative Partymajority seats in the Parliament means the power to form a government (government party, opposition parties )Government policies are initiated by whipsThere is no need to apply for membership in a party.The conservative party ----right wing---oldMain support----middle and upper-middle class. Advocation :privatization of the state owned firmsfree enterpriseadvocate :pragmatismindividualism.Margaret ThatcherThe labor party------left wing/the leftCreated by trade unionMixture of the two partiesDoctrine of SocialismMain support :Working classAdvocation :Establish a welfare stateNationalized industryExercise control over the private industries to revive the primary industryLiberal Democratic-----minority partyadvocates policies based on freedom of the individual and supports the adoption of Propositional Representation at elections(代议制选举)Election:Prime Ministers are elected from national Constituency (选区)Period： 5 yearsGovernment :the party has the majority seats of the parliament.Prime Minister :the leader of the majority party.Section 4:national economy and major cities1. General Survey :first country to start industrial revolution;comprehensive industry systemmineral production：mainly exhausted, others are mainly oil and gaseconomy model :one of the most essential market economy in the world.Industry :⏹comprehensive industry system⏹one of the seven major industrialized countries ofthe Western Worldfinance :London is one of the financial centre of the world’s businesstrade:long coastline ,limited domestic market ,inadequate raw material ,trading nation, petroleum tradeAs for Sino-British trade:China: raw materials, sideline productsBritain: technical equipmentBritain is China's 4th biggest European trade partnereconomic influence :one of the seven major industrialized countries of the Western World, the member of the G8 summitFramework of economy :Economy system : capitalism ,including Public Sector and Private Sector.GDP: The world’s sixth largest economyCurrency: sterlingMining :Oil(.self sufficient .North sea,1975) ,Gas, and Coal (be kept for future use)Manufacturing Industry:Iron and steel industry is the largest manufacturingindustry.A large auto-vehicle industry------Aston Martin,Land Rover, Dodge, and Rolls Royce.Agriculture :favorable condition : mild climate ,Highly mechanized ,Important department :Dairy farming and fishinganimal husbandryPoultry ['pəʊltrɪ]meatEnergy productionMajor Energy Companies: Shell, British Petroleum[pɪ'trəʊlɪəm](BP), British Gas (BG)TransportationWell-known merchant marineOne of the busiest railways in the worldDeveloped highways and airlines (the major airline are mainly operated by the British airways(state-owned) Communication (all state-owned)One of the largest and most developed in the world “999”for police, fireman and ambulanceLargest telecommunication provider-----BT(British Tele communication)FinanceCentral bank of the UK：controls the currency and actsmaintain the integrity and value of the currencyEconomy structuresServices industries, especially, business and financial services—the strongest performing sector in the UK economy with London being the most developed area in the whole country.major citiesLondon•南岸，伦敦眼摩天轮•杜莎夫人蜡像馆／天文馆（Madame Tussaud's/Planetarium）•伦敦塔•伦敦地牢•敞篷巴士伦敦观光游（The Original London Tour）•议会大厦（Houses of Parliament）夏季对外开放•西区和威斯敏斯特大教堂（Westminster Abbey）观光•达利的世界展览馆（Dali Universe）•汉普顿宫（Hampton Court Palace）•肯辛顿宫（Kensington Palace）BelfastManchesterCardiff EdinburgBirminghamChapter twoSection 5 :Origin of the English NationThe native Celt :Celt are considered to be the natives of Great Britain and the ancestors of the Scots, Irish and Welsh peopleOriginate from：Eastern and central EuropeRoman Conquest：Brought about Christianity.Occupied England until 410 A.DLater on, the Jutes and Angles landed, the Angles(the winner) gave the name to England and English people..Alfred the Great.First (Anglo-Saxon )king of (all) England“The father of the British navy.”The battle of HastingsHarold GodwinsonBrave and respectful, but not the direct heir of the throne. But he managed to crown himself the king by wining the support of the WitanWilliam the ConquerorEdward’s cousinSet out from Normandy to English south coast Battlefield :Build up a fort and camped in Hasting, southeastern England.Result : William won, battle abbey mourn for the dead Be crowned in Westminster on Christmas day of 1066,becoming the first Anglo-Norman king of England.Influence :Sped up the development of feudalism in Britain, after the war, the feudalism system was established. Build up the tower of LondonFeudal aristocracy was established.Open up a bi-lingual period in English historyLast invasion of England initiated by foreignersFeudalism system:Established by William the great.The throne provides the land and castlesThe monarch will need the support from the barons Definition :feudal system - giving land in return for service.Section 6: the decline of feudalism in EnglandHenry II and His Reform :William consolidated the feudalism and he took all kinds of measures to strengthen the king’s power, which intensify the conflicts between the monarch andhis baronsHenry the 2nd came into power and become the first king of Plantagenet (金雀花)dynasty.Measures：force the foreign mercenaries to leave the England, demolish the illegal castles built by the barons, abolish the land tax based on hidecreate the circuit courts and the jury systemthe king’s court have the right to try the guilty clerkEffect:Strengthen the feudal orderBring a period of security and prosperityThe course of the form was interrupted and left unfinished.The Great CharterWhen the king John ruled the England, the baronsforce the king to sign and swear to observe the Great Charter.The Great Charter ,or the Magna Charter is very critical in English history and it’s called the corner stone of English history.The content :The king must observe the rights of his vessels.No tax should be imposed without the consent of the Great Council.No free man will be imprisoned or banished without being convicted by a juryThe merchants are allowed to move about freely.Birth of the Parliament:Simon de Montfort(西蒙德孟福尔)brings changes to the organization of the Great Council.2citizens from a flourishing town,2 knights from each county can join the Great Council.Changed the name into Parliament.In the early years, Parliament met only by the king’s invitation. It’s role was to offer someadvice.Significance :The Parliament marked the decline of feudalism and the rise of the Bourgeoisie.The hundred year’s warReason:The conflict between these two countries over foreign markets and territory led to the Hundred Years' War.Definition :A series armed international conflicts over a116-year period between the England and France.Joan of arcThe effect:England lost its territory on the continent.The ruling Norman began to regard England as their homeEnglish replaced French and became the official language again.Gunpowder was used in the wars,Prepare the soil for the growth of the middle class Sped up the decline of the feudalism.Salutary to commercial development.The bourgeoisie became more powerfulThe PlagueEpidemic disease spread by rat fleasStart from Italy, then spread to France, German and England without warning and cure.Believed to be originated in Asia.Effect:Caused a large number of population lossBrought about economic disruption and bad influence on the development of the culture.(universities closed …)give occasion to the peasants uprising.The Peasants UprisingCauses:The natural disasters and social problemsDue to the lack of labor, the peasants are demanding better living condition and higher wagesThe first labor law, the Statute of Laborers, prohibited laborers from asking for more wages. Time and place:In Essex and Kent ,1381,and was led by Wat Tyler and Jack StrawThe king used a scam and suppressed the uprising, ultimately, the uprising was failedEffect :The poll tax was abolishedThe serf system was brought to an end in England afterwards.The Wars of the RosesDefinition :A series of civil wars fought between the house of Lancaster(red rose) and the house of York（white rose）.Major Causes:The dispute on the succession of the crownThe unpopular domination reign of Henry the 6th. Consequence :Both sides at war are the mounted knights and theirentouragesGive birth to the strong and centralized Tudor dynastyInfluence :Sped up the decline of the feudalism in England.Section 8:The English Civil War/RevolutionBriefing :A series of armed conflicts and political games between Parliamentarians and Royalist.Back Ground:The Wars of Roses weaken the feudal nobles,The peasants ,as a result of the peasant uprising and the Enclosure ,the free labors composed a new class------the proletariat (the peasants no longer have their lands)England further develop its foreign trade and expansion ,aiming to achieve its “primitive accumulation of capital”Meanwhile，the bourgeois ideology and morality is forming up.During the Elizabeth’s reign the relation between monarch and bourgeoisie was strained, the latter required the freedom of speechJames the first:Preach the Divine Right of KingsDied because of disease.Charles the first:The son of James the first.Advocate the Divine right of kings(君权神授) Provoked the conflicts between the Catholicism and Puritanism(The Bishops’ War---- enforce Anglican reforms onto Scottish church and was rejected,-----war ,long parliament which sowed the seeds for the civil war).Initiated the British Civil (rose his standard) War between Parliamentarian and Royalist.The First British War:Cause :The appearance of the Long Term Parliament.The tension between the king and Parliament Charles decided to arrest 5members of Parliament. Charles initiated the war by rising his standard in Nottingham .Result :Charles was failed and was capturedThe Second Civil War:Process:Although captured ,the king Charles the first ultimately escaped and negotiated new agreement withScots.The agreement led to the “second civil war”. but eventually, the Royalists were defeated by Parliamentarians.Other revolts were put down by Oliver Cromwell.The army marched on the parliament and conducted the “Pride’s Purge” Finally, the king was charged with high treason ,being “tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy” and executed.The third Civil war:Rebellion:Ireland(treaty) and Scotland agreed to support Charles the second.Process:Cromwell was unable to stop Charles the second, hecrowned a new king. Afterwards, Charles the 2nd fled to France, ended up the war.Significance:Overthrew feudal system in England.Pave the way for the development of capitalist production.Regarded as the beginning of the modern world history.Oliver Cromwell:Established the commonwealth of EnglandDestroyed the feudal system.Became the Lord ProtectorThe restoration :AnarchyIncompetent leader RichardFactionsGeneral George Monck marched south with his army from Scotland.Charles the 2nd was crowned the king of England, which was known as English Restoration.After the restoration, the parliament factions become two parties(later becoming the Tory and Whig)The Glorious Revolution:James the 2nd intended to restore the Roman Catholicism in England and conduct religious persecutionsTories and some of the Whigs decide to replace James the 2nd with his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange(奥兰治亲王威廉)---both were protestants Finally ,James the second abdicatedMary II and William III jointly succeeded to the throne of EnglandSignificance:Regarded as the real beginning of constitutional monarchy ,which means the parliament become thesource of supreme power instead of the king Parliament pass the “Act of Union”and the name of Great Britain was officially adopted and came into use.Section 9:The Industrial Revolution Definition : the invention and appliance of various machines and British urbanization.Condition :The accomplished “primitive accumulation of capital” through plunder and expansion.The enclosure movement provide free labor.The church was deprived of their land and privilege The notorious triangular trade.Favorable geographical position for tradeHuge merchant marine.Pragmatism and mercantilismProtestant “work ethic” and laissez-faire(放任政策)People s’ adventure spiritProcess:The Industrial Revolution first started in textile industry.Iconic inventions:Flying shuttle,carding machine（梳棉机） ,spinning jenny,water framethe steam engine. Watt steam engine was first used to pump water from coal mine.First steam locomotive.(marked the new stage of Industrial Revolution).Achievements of IR:Thousands of miles of canalsA complete railway system.Steam boats and the largest commercial fleet made Great Britain a strong sea power.Social and Political effect:1.Britain became the “workshop of the world”.2.The Britain ‘s social structure was simplified: The middle class and proletariat emerged,The noble class could no longer compete with the middle class.The conflicts between proletariat and capitalism became the biggest social problem in Britain.The small farmers disappeared3.The centre of economy shifted to the central area and northern England.Big cities sprang up.Adam Smith：An evolutionary approach to guide the economy. Advocate the “invisible hand”and laissez-fair policy.The Chartist Movements:A radical campaign for parliament reform of the inequities.Effects :failed because of its weak and divided leadership, it did not have a political party to be a leader.started the history of the workers’ struggle for liberation.Queen Victoria（1819-1901） :Presiding the Industrial revolution and the expansion of the British Empire overseas.Value of the times: (emphasized) prudish gentility and repression.Section 10:The Rise and Fall of the British Empire.（the empire on which the sun never sets）Briefing :During the long 18 century, British rose to a dominant position in the world and became the first country to start Industrial Revolution.The mighty middle class provided a strong platform for settlement and commerce.Growth of the overseas empire:Prerequisite :Pioneering marine policy of king Henry the 7th . Establishment of the modern merchant marine system. Mercantile institution(重商主义体系)Henry the 8th and the rise of the Royal Navy:King Henry the 8th founded the modern English navy.The Elizabeth eraSir Francis Drake(弗朗西斯-德雷克)Circumnavigated the Globe（环游地球，England grew the interest outside the Europe.Established First colony in NewfoundlandWas seen as the formation of the British Empire England extend its influence overseas and consolidate its political development at home.Expend the empire by wars and colonization:First overseas colony Newfoundland.Successively establish colonies in North America, Australia and New Zealand.Free trade and“informal empire”The “salutary neglects”provoke the American Independence war. The period of first British Empire was over.British Empire in AsiaBritish East India company occupied nearly the whole of India.Later on Ceylon(锡兰，今斯里兰卡)and Burma (缅甸) was conquered .Initiated Opium war against China and prevailed .Break down of the Pax Britannica(英国强权下的盛世) The deterioration in the 19th century:Competition from other countries such as Germany and United States.The loss of the foreign market.Britain and the New Imperialism:New imperialism ：the European colonial expansion between 1870s and the outbreak of the first world war. Pursuit :“empire for empire’s sake” desire for territory(appearance of the racial superiority)Later on Britain conduct Home rule in its white settler coloniesThe impact of first world war:Millions of casualties and heavy economy strain (liquidated assets).(Allied power)The heavy cost of war destroy it’s capacity to maintain its vast empire.Its international standing was declining and replaced by the U.SDeclining foreign trade.Decolonization:Reasons:The rising anti-colonial nationalism movementschallenge the power of the empire.The end of the empire started with the outbreak of the World War Two and India independence movements(leader---mahatma Gandhi)The end of the British Empire:Reason: Due to the impact of the world war two and Economic crisis in1947,later on, Britain abjured its attempt to be a first-rank power.。
2024年度张奎武《英美概况》(第4版)笔记和课后习题详解
阐述美国经济制度的基础，如市 场经济、私有制等，以及产业结 构的现状与特点。
社会问题与挑战
探讨美国当前面临的社会问题， 如种族不平等、贫困、犯罪等， 以及政府和社会如何应对这些挑 战。
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课后习题详解：美国部分
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简答题
回答关于美国历史、文化、社会等方面的 简答题，如“简述美国独立战争的背景和 结果”、“分析个人主义在美国文化中的 地位和影响”等。
阐述美国多元文化的特点，以及不同民族在美国社会中的融合过 程。
实用主义与创新精神
探讨实用主义哲学对美国文化的影响，以及创新精神在美国科技、 经济等领域中的体现。
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美国社会现状与特点
政治体制与权力结
构
分析美国政治体制的特点，包括 总统制、三权分立等，以及权力 结构中的利益集团、政党等因素。
经济制度与产业结
英美在国际事务中的影响力 分析英美在国际组织、全球治理等方面的作用和影响力。
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英美外交政策的异同点 比较英美在外交政策制定和实施上的相似性和差异性。
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课后习题详解：政治制度与外交关系部分
习题一
解释英国君主立宪制的基本原则和特 点。
习题二
分析美国总统制与英国君主立宪制的 异同点。
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过去几十年来，英美两国在文化领域的 交流活动不断增多。例如，英国皇家莎 士比亚剧团和美国百老汇的戏剧合作、 英国国家美术馆和美国大都会艺术博物 馆的艺术交流等。这些活动为两国人民 提供了更多了解和欣赏对方文化的机会。
随着全球化的深入发展，英美两国之间 的文化交流将继续加强。未来，两国可 以在数字创意产业、影视制作、艺术教 育等领域开展更多合作，共同推动世界 文化的繁荣和发展。
第五章 大英帝国的兴衰 The Rise and Fall of the British Empire
政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。
(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.
工业革命（1780-1830）
1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;
优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；
这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。
The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.
英美概况的笔记
第一章Land and People英国的国土与人民I. Differ ent Namesfor Britai n and its Parts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geogra phica l names: the Britis h Isles, GreatBritai n and Englan d.地理名称:不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。
2.Offici al name: the United Kingdo m of GreatBritai n and Northe rn Irelan d.官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。
3.The Britis h Islesare made up of two largeisland s-GreatBritai n (the larger one) and Irelan d, and hundre ds of smallones.不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。
4.Threepoliti cal divisi ons on the island of GreatBritai n: Englan d, Scotla nd and Wales.大不列颠岛上有三个政治区:英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。
(1) Englan d is in the southe rn part of GreatBritai n. It is the larges t, most populo us sectio n.英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。
(2) Scotla nd is in the northof GreatBritai n. It has threenatura l zones(the Highla nds in the north; the Centra l lowlan ds; the southUpland s) Capita l: Edinbu rgh苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。
英美概况论文--On the Rise and Fall of Great Britain
On the Rise and Fall of Great Britain中文摘要：英国,又称大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，是由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰组成的联合王国。
英国采用君主立宪制政体，王国政府所在地为英国首都伦敦。
英国本土位于欧洲大陆西北面的大不列颠群岛，被北海、英吉利海峡、凯尔特海、爱尔兰海和大西洋包围，气候温和湿润。
它，一个漂泊在大西洋上的小岛，曾经在世界历史发展的漫长时期中湮没无闻，人口不过数百万，国土资源也很有限，却率先敲开通向现代世界的大门，从地理的边缘变成了世界的中心，一跃成为西方强国的领头人，并独领风骚数百年，给人类文明烙上了不可磨灭的印记。
然而到了十九世纪末期，由于美、德等国的崛起以及其他种种原因，英国逐渐失去优势,后来又在第二次世界大战中受到严重创伤，大英帝国国力日渐衰落,海外殖民地也在二战后纷纷宣告独立,大英帝国逐渐演变成一个组织松散的英联邦。
这个曾经号称“世界工厂”和“日不落帝国”的国家又逐渐衰落，回归到欧洲，回归到欧洲的版图之内，回归到大西洋中的那个小岛。
关键词: 农业革命；工业革命；世界工厂；殖民扩张；帝国；世界大战；衰落Abstract in English：Great Britain, also know as The United Kingdom of Great Britain and North Ireland, is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and North Ireland. The British system of government is known as constitutional monarchy and the government is located in its capital city London. Lying in the British Isles to the northwest of Continental Europe, Britain was surrounded by the North Sea, the British Channel, Celtic Sea, Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean with a mild and moist climate.It, a small island which lies in the Atlantic Ocean, was once little-known in the long history of the development of the world and had only several millions of people. What' more, her territorial resources were also limited. However, she is the first country to open the door to the modern world ranging from the geographical edge to the center of the world. She had once been the leading power of the western countries for hundreds of years and also branded an indelible mark on the human civilization. However, in the late 19th century, with the rise of America and German and other factors, Britain began to lose the upper hand in the international competition. Afterwards, she suffered great loss in the two world wars. Britain began declining and the foreign colonies began to win independence one after another. The great Britain Empire became a loose federal country and Britain which was once known as the "workshop of the world" and "an empire in which the sun does not set" began declining gradually and returned to Europe, the European territory，the island in the Atlantic Ocean.Key words:Agricultural Changes;Industrial Revolution;T he workshop of the world;Colonial Expansion ;The World War ;The Empire ;Decline Introduction:Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea to the west and off the European Continent. With the decline of the feudalism and the increase of the influence of the new-born bourgeoisie, she began her capitalist development. Through the closure and foreign plunder, expansion and aggression ,shecompleted the primitive accumulation of capital. She became the first country to undergo the industrial revolution. Soon she became the workshop of the world and had the largest colonies. Of course, she became the most powerful country in the world. However, in the late 19th century with the competition of the new industrialized countries and other factors, she began to lose the upper hand. Afterwards, she suffered great loss in the two world wars. she began to decline. The colonies laid overseas began to revolt against Britain and won independences. Great Britain has gradually evolved into a loose organization of the Commonwealth. In the modern times, she tried to recover form it ,but for different reasons she still developed slowly. Now she is still one of the major developed countries, she has been reduced to be a second-class world power who is always at the America's command in international affairs.1 The rise of Great BritainAs a small country, which had been invaded by several times ,how could Great Britain developed into the workshop of the world and establish the largest empire that history has ever been seen? Let's explore it together.1.1 Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th CenturyIn the mid-18th century the population in England increased rapidly, and most of this increase was in the towns, depending on the countryside, for food. Greater productivity meant handsome profits, so landowners wanted to replace the synall farms cultivated on the open-field system by larger, economically more efficient farms with hedge-divided fields. During the late 18th and early19th centuries the open-field system ended when the Enclosure Acts enabled wealthier landowners to seize any land to which tenants could prove no legal title and to divide it into enclosed fields. A system of crop rotation was introduced. This meant land could be fully used while the cuffivation of fodder crops enabled livestock to be kept through the winter months. Artificial fertilizer and new agricultural machinery, such as the seed drill invented by Jethro Tull (1674-1741), also made arable farming moreefficient and more profitable. The 18th century also saw selective breeding of cattle, sheep and horses by Robert Bakewell (1725-95). Animals by 1800 were 2 to 3 times heavier than ever before. The idea of encouraging tenants to introduce changes was associated with Thomas Coke(1754-1842) of Norfolk in Southern England and even George was so enthusiastic about changes at Windsor that he got the nick-named “Famer George”Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results (1) Farms became-bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small; (2) more vegetables, more milk, more diary produce were consumed, and diet became more varied; (3) enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns, which rapidly became hopelessly overcrowded. Riots erupted in many areas but they could not prevent the march of progress. In Ireland and the Scottish Highlands -land enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World; and (4) a new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships. Concentra tion of land in fewer hands increased the price of land and dashed the labourers' hopes of ever owning his own land. Loss of the common land for his animals added insult to injury, and meant many had to leave the land to survive. Others became wage labourers, earning rates which were very low in spite of agriculture's new prosperity.1.2 M-The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)The Industrial Revolution was a necessary result of social development in Britain. It was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism after the English Civil War in the 17th century. The Enclosure Movement and the Agricultural Revolution were driving more and more peasants off their lands; as a result, they had to seek new employment to survive. Through colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, the greedy English capitalists accomplished their “primitive accumulation of capital”. All these factorscombined to make England the first country to undergo the Industrial Revolution.The Industrial Revolution in Britain first began in the textile industry because of the short supply of yarn. Lots of inventions were made to improve thread-making techniques and the productivity was increased by 200 times. As the 18th century began, coal came to replace wood in the productive process. The crucial development of the Industrial Revolution was the use of steam for power, and the James Watt’s invention of the steam engine led to the fast development of the iron, steel and coal industries. The expansion of production and trade promote the transportation revolution. Afterwards, the first steam locomotive was built in 1814 by Stephenson. The Industrial Revolution turned Britain into the “workshop of the world”. English products flooded the world market. The English bourgeoisie amassed large amounts of wealth through trade, plunder and colonization. No country was strong enough to match England in the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution simplified the class structure in Britain. Revolution pushed the middle class to the dominant position in the country though the noble class was still prominent in Parliament and bureaucracy. However, as the urban workers were more completely dependent on the will of the employer, relations between capital and labor were aggravated and the contradiction between two classes became the major problem in English society. The gravitational center of the English economy also changed. The agricultural South became less important than areas in central and north England, owing to their raw materials and cheap labor for industry. The industry had replaced agriculture as the main source of national income and wealth. The Industrial Revolution had profound significance on England; it enabled Britain to go far ahead of all the other countries. It became the workshop of the world and London became the financial center of the world trade and the English language was used in many parts of the world. The empire came into being during the Industrial Revolution.1.3 Colonial ExpansionEnglish colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. In the early 18th century, settlements were made in North America, while commercial companies were chartered to trade with other lands, notabl the British East India Company in India. Encouraged by Britain's control of the seas, the discoveries of men like Captain Cook, and especially by the rising tide of emigration, the British colonialists stepped up their expansion in the late 18th century and the early 19th century.1.3.1 The growth of dominionsIn the late 18th century Britain acquired vast, under populated territories: Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.After the Seven Years' War (1756-63 ) between Britain and France, Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were guaranteed by the. Quebec Act of 1774. Then the Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada (Pntario) where the British had settled, and Lower Canada (Quebec) populated by the French. Only one serious revolt against British rule took place in 1837-38. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada ,as a dominion. The four founding provinces were Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The others entered later.Australia was first discovered by the Dutch in the early 1600s. Captain James Cook discovered Botany Bay and claimed the east coast region for Britain, naming it New South Wales, (1770). The English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free settlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing colonies were united in one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.New Zealand was settled by Maoris in about the 14th century. New Zealand was sighted by the Dutch seaman Abel Tasman in 1642, and named for the Netherlands province of Zeeland. In the1770s Captain James Cook visited New Zealand and claimed it for England. Missionaries became active inthe early 19th century, and systematic colonization was begun in 1840 by the New Zealand Company. Britain drew up the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) with the Maori chiefs, and made the country a separate colony (1841). It achieved self-government in 1952, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907, and was made completely independent in 1931.1.3.2. The Conquest of IndiaThe establishment of the British East India Company in 1600 was a case of economic penetration. The company took control of areas and as a result the British government became directly involved in Indian affairs. The India Act of 1784 set up a “Board of Control”to supervise the Company. Political instability and French interference prompted further intervention. By 1819 the British conquest of India was almost complete. In 1857 the native- troops of the Bengal army of the East India Company mutinied because of (1) resentment at the reforms of ancient Indian institutions carried out by the British; (2) fear of forcible conversion to Christianity; and (3) the issue of cartridges- greased with cow-fat, which offended Hindus, or pig-fat, which offended Muslims . After the mutiny, the control of India passed to the British Crown in 1858, and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.2 The Fall of Great BritainWith the coming of the 19th century,the British Empire began to go downhill. First,the capitalist countries did not develop at even pace. T owards the end of the 19th century the newly-industrialized countries which developed more quickly than Britain spang up and become Britain's formidable rivals in markets and source of raw materials. In 1900,Britain was surpassed by the United States and Germany in industrial production and Britain lost her economic supremacy in the world. Sceond,when the 20th century was ushered in the state of Britain's imperial rule over her colonies started to totter and an up surge of the national independence struggle of the colonial people began to be in the making. In the process of the crumbing of the British Empire, there were several affairs which directly or indirectly led to her declining.2.1 Britain in the Two World Wars and the AftermathBriain joined in World War I and was one of the victorious countries . It seemed like that she won the greatest victory in history,but she sustained great loss:more than a million dead, a gigantic war debt,and loss of many foreign markets forever. She was exhausted and half bankrupt. About 750,000 Englishmen,fell in action and 1.500,000 were disabled for life. The war cost was about 9 billion pounds an nearly 70 percent of it was met by loans. As a result ,Britain became a debtor country. London was replaced by New Y ork as the world's banking center. Britain's international status was lowered to a great extent and she was deprived of her position as unmatched maritime overlord by the Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty.On June 6,1944,the British joined the Allied forces in the Normandy Invasion and fought in the Second Front in Western Europe until the final victory. World War II started the last stage of Britain's disintegration which was initiated by World War I,on the one hand, Britain suffered enormous losses in the war and her national strength was greatly reduced .With the war over, Britain had face the fact that it was no longer a major power.it would no longer keep up pretences;its cities had been damaged ,its navy and army strethed to the limit, its war debt enormous.Britain needed a long time to recover from the cost war-nothing less than a reconstruction of the nation.2.2 The Loss of ColonizationIn Britain's former colonies, the commonwealth was to keep a certain club-like organization by which Britain manage to keep a certain The October Revolution led to a national liberation movements in British colonies. The British government tried its best at first to suppress them and when that failed,she made concessions.World War I undermined Britain's rules over her colonies. When the colonials participating in the war returned home, they were not as deferential to their English masters as before. Revolutionary ideas of the war like "self-determination of peoples" and socialist idealogies wereside-spread in the British colonial rule began to revolt against colonial rulers and some of them won their victories. After World War II,peoples in the British colonies had been awakened and tempered by the war and their struggle for independence began to surge forward immediately. Within two decades ,most of British colonies became independent. Therefore, Britain suffered a decided in production and foreign trade relative to its prewar status.3 Modern BritainHistory has left much burden on Britain and she didn't recover from the bad condition quickly. There are a series of factors which influence her development.3.1The Monarch and the PeopleThough the feudal class is no longer in power,the monarchy and the Upper House have been retained and the monarchy continues to confer noble titles on distinguished persons. In Britain, the Queen reigns,but she does not rule. The royal house has a large amount of private wealth and spends many million of pounds given by Parliament,which undoubtedly give a burden on the national expenditure. In addition, they have many privileges.Despite traditional as well as present diversity, the British people have their common characteristics--conservatism and deference.Adherence to traditions and familiar things easily leads to public suspicion of new plans of the government,causing numerous protests i n the country.3.2 The Economic FactorsBritain is a trading nation.many years of consumption has exhausted some of Britain's resources. Therefore ,she became one one of the world's largestest importers,buying up a large proportion of the raw materials sold in the world market. Its limited domestic market and inadequate home supply of raw materials compel the country to rely on heavily on foreign trade.In addition,Britain is not self-sufficient in food grain.After the second World War,Britain nationalized some one-fourth of production and service industries.Some of the stated-owned companies made thin profits or even ran at a loss. Britain's slow growth of productivity,soaring inflation,and large unemployment gave birth to the mocking term"British Disease". In spite of the efforts to redjust and some short periods of rapid development,Britain's rate econemic growth has been low in comparison with that of most other industrialized countries.3.3 Cultural and Social FactorsBritain is said to be a state with a from-cradle -to -grave social welfare programme.The government should ensure ,as far as it can,that nobody should be without the means of the minimum necessities of life because of unemployment ,old age,sickness,or over-large families. According to one estimate,government's spending on the social programme consists of more than 40% of the government's total expenditure. It 's a heavy burden on the government,resulting in what is known as ''dependency culture'' which hinders development based on competition.Conclusion:Looking back from Britain’s rise to fall, it is not difficult for us to find that Britain can become the European most powerful country and then the strongest country is a result of its new policy, technology and expansion. The rising bourgeoisie gave rise to the end of the feudal system and ushered a new stage to come. The Industrial Revolution turned Britain into the “workshop of the world” and England was the world’s economic center. And after the colonial expansion, wealth flooded in Britain and the great empire on which the sun never set was established. However, as we all are concerned, one’s previous glory doesn’t guarantee her a brilliant future. When the British were resting on their laurels, the world situation changed. When other countries were researching advanced technology and developing their economy, England was unwilling to adopt new technology and new equipment, she thus lost the monopolize position in the world’s industry and sea power. After two World Wars, the Great Britain’s power declined heavily. Though she won both of twowars, she is still a loser. Many problems were emerging, economic plunge, weakened sea power, loss of foreign colonies, large unemployment, and so on. It can no longer claim to be the most powerful country in the world. However, though it had lost its landlord position, the nation as a whole was not crushed by despair, it was still a powerful country in the world but not the strongest.T aking the rise and fall of Great Britain as an example, we may learn that a country want prosperous, it needs to go through a hard road. But after being glorious, resting on one’s laurels is a road to death. T echnology is the development for all, so we must accept new things and ideas and let our mind emancipated from old stereotype!Bibliography：Alderman Geofftey,Modern Britain 1700--1983,Burrell Row,Provident House,1986,P1--15A.C.W.,Winchester,Nineteent Century Britain 1815--1941,Harlow,Essex,UK, Longman House 1982,P175--181安来芳,英美概况[M],郑州：河南人民出版社，2004.9 ,P130--136张奎武，英美概况[M]，吉林：吉林科技大学出版社，1984,P115-12911。
商务英语大英帝国的兴衰
商务英语--大英帝国的兴衰The Rise and Fall of the British EmpireThe British Empire, once the largest empire in history, had a profound impact on the world. It spanned across continents and shaped societies, economies, and political systems. However, this empire also experienced a rise and fall that is worth examining。
The rise of the British Empire can be traced back to the 16th century when explorers like Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh began venturing into unknown territories. These explorations led to the establishment of colonies in North America, such as Jamestown in 1607. The acquisition of territories continued through the 17th and 18th centuries, with the British East India Company playing a significantrole in establishing trade and control in India。
The 19th century marked the height of the British Empire's power and influence. The Industrial Revolution in Britain fueled its economic growth and provided the resources necessary for expansion. The empire's naval superiority allowed for the establishment of colonies and protectorates around the world. The British Empire became known as "the empire on which the sun never sets" due to its vast territories and the fact that it had colonies in every inhabited continent。
《英语国家概况》词汇选释 第五章 英帝国的兴衰(1688—1990)
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End of empire
A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the Sino-British Joint Declaration(中 英联合声明）, Hong Kong would become a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, maintaining its way of life for at least 50 years.The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many,including Charles, Prince of Wales,who was in attendance, "the end of Empire".
Rise of the "Second British Empire" (1783–1815)
Company rule in India Loss of 13 American colonies Exploration of the Pacific War with Napoleonic France Abolition of slavery
Rivalry with the Netherlands in Asia
At the end of the 16th century, England and the Netherlands began to challenge Portugal's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages— the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively.
世界历史068大英帝国的兴衰
世界历史068大英帝国的兴衰英国位于欧洲西部的不列颠群岛上，由大不列颠、爱尔兰东北部及周围5500多个小岛组成，面积24.4万平方公里。
十六世纪至二十世纪初叶，英国对外侵略扩张成为近代最大的殖民国家，到1914年，其领地已达3350万平方公里，为英国本土的137倍，英国因此而号称日不落帝国。
第一次世界大战，是英国由盛到衰的转折点。
第二次世界大战后，在民族解放运动革命浪潮的冲击下，英国庞大的殖民帝国土崩瓦解。
英国的兴盛英国是最早跨入世界资本主义的国家之一，早在十四世纪，资本主义在英国就得到了一定的发展。
十五世纪、十六世纪，英国开始海外殖民扩张，在世界各地，尤其是在美洲新大陆，占领了大批的殖民地，大肆掠夺殖民地的财富。
一批批冒险商人、水手从海外带回数不清的财富，不列颠人逐渐完成了坚实的原始积累。
十八世纪下半叶，人类历史上的首次工业革命首先在不列颠发生了。
这个曾经是世界最蛮荒的岛屿之一的国度走到了世界发展的前列。
随着纺纱机的转动，蒸汽机的轰鸣，英国的工业开始腾飞了。
到十九世纪初，英国工业不仅在欧洲，而且在全世界都获得了领先的地位，小小的英伦三岛成为震撼全球的世界工厂。
成为世界工厂的英国，需要更广阔的产品销售市场和原料产地。
1850年，英国加工了全世界46.1%的棉花。
在原料方面，英国严重依赖国外市场。
1845年至1849年，毛纺织业原料进口的比重高达43%。
在1844年至1846年的进口总额中，生活资料和原料所占比重高达95%。
正是因为需要更广阔的市场和原料产地，英国扩大了在海外的殖民扩张。
拥有强大的海军是英国在海外建立庞大的殖民帝国的重要条件。
早在十五世纪和十六世纪，英国就开始了海外探险扩张活动，英国女王伊丽莎白一世宣布：大海和空气为人类共同享有，海洋不属于任何民族或个人。
1577年冬天，以贩卖奴隶起家的德雷克得到英国枢密院的默许，决心要打破西班牙对太平洋的独占，他航行到美洲后，继续西航，穿过麦哲伦海峡，并在没有设防的美洲西海岸夺取了大量金银，然后经太平洋、印度洋于1580年9月回到英国，完成了英国人的首次环球航行。
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I.Whigs and Tories辉格党人和托利党人These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。
The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。
辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。
The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。
托利党是保守党的前身。
I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century18世纪末的农业革命During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the "open-field" system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results:18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的"开放田地"制结束。
圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。
农业圈地运动的利弊共存：（1）Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越在的生产单位；（2）More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富；（3）Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns.Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World;圈地对佃家而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。
圈地运动导致了大规模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。
（4）A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships.农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。
II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)工业革命（1780-1830）1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。
2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:英国成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下：(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industralization.政治局面稳定。
17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。
国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。
(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。
(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products.英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。
(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。
英国还有可用的矿产资源。
(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。
(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。
(8) Probably laissez faire and "Protestant work ethic" helped.很可能利益于"放手干"及"新教工作道德"。
(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers. 1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，1807年后爱尔兰加入。
因此，全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。
(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了所需的一些原材料。
3．Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution工业革命中一些重大创新(1) John Kay's flying shuttle in 1733;1733年，约翰凯的飞梭；(2) James Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny in 1766;1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机；(3) Richard Arkwright's waterframe in 1769;1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机；(4) Samuel Crompton's mule in 17791779年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机；(5) Edmund Cartwright's power loom in 1784;1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机；(6) James Watt's steam engine in 1765.1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。
4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution工业革命的结果（1）Britain was by 1830 the "workshop of the world";英国成为了"世界工场"；（2）Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation's wealth.城镇迅速兴起，成为国家财富的源泉。