心理学概论第一章什么是心理学

Chapter 1 What is Psychology第一章什么是心理学This chapter includes four modules: at first, module1tells us psychology and working at psychology; second, module 2 introduces the past, the present and the future of psychology; and then, we will learn five researches in psychology; at last, we will see research challenges in psychology.MODULE 1 PSYCHOLOGISTS A T WORKDefinition of psychologyPsychology is the science of behavior and mental processes, which is an extremely broad discipline. It seeks to both describe and explain every aspect of human thought, feelings, perceptions, and actions.ØMental process: Private psychological activities that include thinking, perceiving, and feeling.ØBehavior: Directly observable and measureable actions.The Subfields of PsychologyØBehavioral neuroscienceØExperimental psychologyØCognitive psychologyØDevelopmental psychologyØPersonality psychologyØHealth psychologyØClinical psychologyØClinical neuropsychologyØEvolutionary psychologyØSocial psychologyØCross-cultural psychologyWorking at PsychologyColleges and medical school 28%Private practice 33.60%Human services 10.60%Industry and government 6.30%Hospitals 8.80%School districts 4.20%Others 8.50%Psychology is one of the most popular majors in colleges and universities. A background in it is useful in a wide number of fields because so many jobs involve a basic understanding of people.Careers for those with advanced degrees in psychology include both academic and applied work. They include teaching, research, jobs in government and private business, and a number of occupations in the mental health field.Opportunities in the mental health field depend on one's degree of training. They include the occupations of psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, the job of clinical psychologist, which involves getting a doctoral degree, and the jobs of counseling psychologist and social worker.MODULE 2 A SCIENCE EVOLVES: THE PAST, THE PRESENT, AND THE FUTUREThe Roots of PsychologyIt was not until the late 1800s that psychology emerged as a formal discipline. Over its relatively brief history a number of key people and perspectives have helped to shape its directions.Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Bradford Titchner: Voluntarism and StructuralismIn 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. There the use of experiment and measurement marked the beginnings of psychology as a science.William James: FunctionalismThe American psychologist William James criticized structuralism, arguing that sensations cannot be separated from the mental associations that allow us to benefit from past experiences. Our rich storehouse of ideas and memories is what enables us to function in our environment, James said. His perspective became known as functionalist theory.Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic PsychologyThe theories of Sigmund Freud added another new dimension to psychology: the idea that much of our behavior is governed by unconscious conflicts, motives, and desires. Freud's theories gave rise to the psychodynamic approach.John B. Watson: BehaviorismJohn B. Watson, a spokesman for the school of thought called behaviorism, argued that psychology should concern itself only with observable, measurable behavior. Watson based much of his work on the conditioning experiments of Ivan Pavlov.B. F. Skinner: Behaviorism RevisitedB. F. Skinner's beliefs were similar to Watson's, but he added the concept of reinforcement or rewards. In this way he made the learner an active agent in the learning process. Skinner's views dominated American psychology into the 1960s.Gestalt PsychologyAccording to Gestalt psychology, perception depends on the human tendency to see patterns, to distinguish objects from their backgrounds, and to complete pictures from a few clues. In this emphasis on wholeness the Gestalt school radically differed from structuralism.Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic psychology emphasizes the goal of reaching one's full potential.Cognitive PsychologyCognitive psychology is the study of mental processes in the broadest sense, focusing on how people perceive, interpret, store, and retrieve information. Unlike behaviorists, cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes can and should be studied scientifically. This view has had a far-reaching impact on psychology.Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary psychology focuses on the functions and adaptive values of various human behaviors, trying to understand how they have evolved. In this way it seeks to add a new dimension to psychological research.Positive PsychologyPositive psychology is an emerging perspective, holding that psychology should focuses more on the "good life," the study of subjective feelings of happiness and well-being.NA TURE OF CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCEIn 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. There the use of experiment and measurementmarked the beginnings of psychology as a science.ØStructuralism, which was based on the belief that psychology's role was to identify the basic elements of experience and how they combine.ØIntrospection The process of reporting on one’s own conscious mental experience.Gestalt Psychology, perception depends on the human tendency to see patterns, to distinguish objects from their backgrounds, and to complete pictures from a few clues. In this emphasis on wholeness the Gestalt school radically differed from structuralism.Function of Conscious MindThe American psychologist William James criticized structuralism, arguing that sensations cannot be separated from the mental associations that allow us to benefit from past experiences. Our rich storehouse of ideas and memories is what enables us to function in our environment, James said. His perspective became known as functionalist theory.Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes in the broadest sense, focusing on how people perceive, interpret, store, and retrieve information. Unlike behaviorists, cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes can and should be studied scientifically. This view has had a far-reaching impact on psychology.Behaviorism & Social Learning TheoryJohn B. Watson, a spokesman for the school of thought called behaviorism, argued that psychology should concern itself only with observable, measurable behavior. Watson based much of his work on the conditioning experiments of Ivan Pavlov.B. F. Skinner's beliefs were similar to Watson's, but he added the concept of reinforcement or rewards. In this way he made the learner an active agent in the learning process. Skinner's views dominated American psychology into the 1960s.Social Learning Theory，the viewpoint that the most important aspects of our behavior are learned from other person in society—family, friends, and culture. It Integrates aspects of behaviorism and the cognitive perspective.Neuroscience perspectiveNeuroscience perspective is a hybrid field emphasizing brain activity as information processing. We will learn it latter.Nature of Unconscious MindThe theories of Sigmund Freud added another new dimension to psychology: the idea that much of our behavior is governed by unconscious conflicts, motives, and desires. Freud's theories gave rise to the psychodynamic approach.Humanistic Psychology is a clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.Today’s PerspectivesØBiological view: search for the cause of behavior in the functioning of genes, the brain, and nervous system, and the endocrine.ØNeuroscience: how the brain creats thoughts, feelings, motives, consciousness, memories, and other mental process.ØEvolutionary psychology: sees behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptions for survival and reproduction.ØThe Development View: emphasizing changes that occur across the lifepan.ØThe Cognitive View: emphasizing mental process, such as learning, memory, perception, and thinking, as forms of information processing.ØCognitive neuroscience: A hybrid field emphasizing brain activity as information processing.ØThe Clinical View: emphasizing mental health and mental illness.ØPsychodynamic psychology: emphasizing the understanding of mental disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflicts.ØHumanistic psychology: emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.ØBehavioral view: find the source of our actions in environmental stimuli, rather than in inner mental processes.ØTrait view: view behavior and personality as the products of enduring psychological characteristics.ØSociocultural view: emphasizing the important of social interaction, social learning, and a cultural perspective.New DirectionsØEvolutionary psychology focuses on the functions and adaptive values of various human behaviors, trying to understand how they have evolved.ØPositive psychology is an emerging perspective, holding that psychology should focuses more on the "good life," the study of subjective feelings of happiness and well-being.MODULE 3 RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGYScientific Method is a five-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgments.Psychologists use a variety of methods to study behavior and mental processes. Each has its own advantages and limitations.Naturalistic ObservationPsychologists use naturalistic observation to study behavior in natural settings. Since there is minimal interference from the researcher, the behavior observed is likely to be more accurate, spontaneous, and varied than behavior studied in a laboratory. One potential problem with naturalistic observation is observer bias, the expectations or biases of the observer that might distort his or her interpretations of what was observed.Case StudiesResearchers conducting a case study investigate the behavior of one person or a few persons in depth. This method can yield a great deal of detailed, descriptive information useful for forming hypotheses.SurveysSurvey research generates a large amount of data quickly and inexpensively by asking a standard set of questions of a large number of people. Great care must be taken, however, in how the questions are worded.Correlational ResearchCorrelational research is used to investigate the relation, or correlation, between two or more variables. Correlational research is useful for clarifying relationships between preexisting variables that can't be examined by other means. The method above all are correlational research.Experimental ResearchIn the experimental method one variable (the independent variable) is systematically manipulated and the effects on another variable (the dependent variable) are studied, usually using both an experimental group of subjects (participants) and a control group for comparison purposes. By holding all other variables constant, the researcher can draw conclusions about cause and effect. Often a neutral person is used to record data and score results, so experimenter bias doesn't distort the findings.The Importance of SamplingRegardless of the particular research method used, psychologists almost always study a small sample of subjects and then generalize their results to larger populations. Random samples, in which subjects are chosen randomly, and representative samples, in which subjects are chosen to reflect the general characteristics of the population as a whole, are two ways of ensuring that results have broader application.MODULE 4 RESEARCH CHALLENGES: EXPLORING THE PROCESSETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGYThe American Psychological Association (APA) has a code of ethics for conducting research involving human or animal subjects. Still, controversy over ethical guidelines continues, with some thinking they are too strict and impede psychological research, and others thinking they are not strict enough to protect subjects from harm.Ethics in Research on HumansA key part of the APA code regarding research on humans is the requirement that researchers obtain informed consent from participants in their studies. Subjects must be told in advance about the nature of the research and the possible risks involved. People should not feel pressured to participate if they do not want to.Ethics in Research on Nonhuman AnimalsAlthough much of what we know about certain areas of psychology has come from animal research, the practice of experimenting on animals has strong opponents. APA and federal guidelines govern the humane treatment of laboratory animals, but animal rights advocates argue that the only ethical research on animals is naturalistic observation.Experimenter and participant expectationsExperimenter expectation: Experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to participantsParticipant expectation: It is typical for people to develop their own hypotheses about what the experimenter hopes to learn from the study.Double-blind procedure: Both the experimenter and participant do not know the real purpose of the experiment.。