何家弘法律英语课件_第十四课
法律英语(LegalEnglish)(第二版)
1法律英语（ Legal English ）（第二版）法律出版社2003 年 ?北京 何家弘Law Legal Family33. 五月花号公约 34. 制宪会议 Lesson Two Legal Profession1. 法律职业 /律师职业 the bar法官职业 the benchThe Bar Association practice lawpracticing lawyeradvocacycounseling drafting of legal instruments 1. 公诉制度 public prosecution2. 普通法系 common law legal system3. 判例法 case law4. 成文法（制定法） written law (statutory law)5. 遵从前例 stare decisis6. 判例汇编 reports7. 有约束力的法律解释 binding interpretation 8. 法学方法论 legal methodology9. 颁布 ???为法律 be decreed10. 巡回法官 itinerant judges11. 英国皇家法院 English Royal Court 12. 令状，法院令状 writ13. 诉讼请求的强制执行 enforcement of a claim 14. 追诉权 recourse15. 牛津条例 Provision of Oxford16. 本案令状 writ upon the case17. 诉讼行为 forms of action18. 衡平法 equity law19. 公平且善良 ex aequo bono20. 特定履行（实际履行） 方式之救济 relief in the form of specific performance 21. 大法官法院 Court of Chancery22. 补偿性损害赔偿金 compensatory damages 23. 强制令 the injunction24. 衡平法准则 maxims of equity law 25. 法律概念 legal concept26. 不动产 real property/ real estate/ immovable property/ realty 27. 民事诉讼 civil suit28. 衡平法院 Chancery Court29. 财产法上的所有权分割 division of title in the law of property 30. 先例 precedents31. 普通法系 the Common Law Legal Family/ the English Law Lesson One Legal SystemLegal Family/ the English-American Law Legal Family32. 大陆法系 the Roman Law Legal Family/ the Civil Law Legal Family/ the Continental the Mayflower Compact the Constitutional Convention 2. 律师协会 3. （律师）执业 4. 执业律师 5. 出庭辩护 / 代理诉讼 6. 法律咨询 7. 法律文件的起草attorney/attorney-at-law/counsellor/counsellor-at-law 31. 律师(英国) barrister/solicitorLesson Three Legal Education 1. 法律博士我国现称“法律硕士”并有新名2. 法学硕士3. 法学博士4. 法律文书写作5. 批评性思维6. 案例教学法7. 苏格拉底式教学法8. 讲演式教学法9. 美国律师协会认可的法学院10. 案情摘要11. 模拟法庭12. 模拟审判13. 课程指南14. 刑事司法15. 自由资本主义Juris Doctor(JD)Juris Master(JM)Master of Laws(LLM)Doctor of Juridical Science(SJD) legal writing critical thinking case method socratic method lecture method ABA accredited law schools briefs moot court mock trial curriculum guide criminal justice laissez faire/lesei / ' fe?Lesson Four Judicial System1. 联邦法院2. 联邦法院的组成：联邦最高法院13 个联邦上诉法院95 个联邦地区法院federal courtsthe Supreme Court Courts of Appeals District Courts8. 法律文件legal instruments9. 单独执业者single/individual practitioner10. 合伙关系partnership11. 薪水律师salaried lawyer12. 律师业务law practice13. 专职法律顾问house counsel/corporate counsel14．辩护人/ 律师advocate15. 私人开业private practice16. 州检察官/ 律师state prosecutor/state attorney17. 地区检察官/ 律师district attorney18. 起诉检察官/ 公诉律师prosecuting attorney19. 检察系统prosecutorial system20. 联邦检察官federal prosecutor21. 地方检察官local prosecutor22. 助理检察官assistant prosecutor23. 检察行业prosecutorial profession24. 个人尊严the integrity of the individual25. 机会均等equality of opportunity26. 职业道德规范ethics codes27. 听证会hearings28. 社区法律服务community legal services29. 单人开业solo practice30. 律师/法律工作者（美国）公司或团体法律顾问）23索赔法院 关税法院 关税及专利上诉法院 等联邦特别法院the Court of Claims the Customs Court the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals special courts 此外还有：3. 各州法院系统一般包括三级法院：基层法院多称为审判法院 或巡回法院中级法院多称为上诉法院高级法院多称为最高法院 许多州也有一些专门法院： 遗嘱检验法院 青少年法院 家庭关系法院 小额索赔法院4．联邦和州最高法院法官称为大法官Trial Court Circuit Court Appellate Court or Court of Appeals Supreme Court Probate Court Juvenile Court Court of Domestic Relations Small Claims Court Justice Judge Justice of the Peace 5. 美国联邦最高法院首席大法官 Chief Justice 其他 8 人称大法官 Associate Justice 6. 巡回法官 Circuit Judge 7. 合议庭 Collegiate Panel/Collegiate Bench 8. 诉讼当事人 litigant 9. 司法管辖区 judicial district 10. 案件数量 caseload 11. 联邦巡回法院 the Federal Circuit 12. 复审案件 review a case 13. 复查判决 review a decision 14. 特别法庭 tribunals 15. 死刑 capital punishment/death penalty 16. 调案复审令 writ of certiorari 17. 具有开业律师资格be admitted to practice law 18. 职业法官 career judiciary 19. 民众选举 popular vote 20. 现任法官 sitting judges 21. 严重不端行为gross misconduct 22. 正式诉讼 formal proceedings 23. 负民事责任 incur civil liability 24. 美国律师协会的 “法官行为准则 ” The American Bar Association 25. 私人开业律师private practitioner 26. 重罪 felony 27. 轻罪 misdemeaner28. 审查案件的事实并作出判决 review the facts of a case and 29. 终审法院 court of last resort30. 司法巡回区 judicial circuit31. 保释金 bond32. 预审听证 preliminary hearings33. 杀人 homicide34. 强奸 sexual assault35. 累犯 repeat offendersrender a disposition上诉法院和审判法院的法官则称为法官 有些基层法院的审判人员还称为治安法官 或司法官 Magistrate ' s Code of Judical Conduct436. 惯犯 37. 驳回上诉 38. 发回重审39. 行使广泛的自由裁量权habitual offenders deny the petition for appeals remand the case back to the lower court for reconsideration exercise wide discretion over Lesson Five Constitution1. 法律分类 classification of law Common Law Equity substantive law 程序法 4. 公法 私法 5. 联邦条例 procedural law public law private lawArticles of Confederation and Perpetual Union 2. 普通法 衡平法3. 实体法 （1977 年，美国联邦会议通过，美国最早的宪法性法律文件 ） 6. 宪法修正条款 amendments 8. 宪法至上原则 doctrine of constitution supremacy 9. 基本法 fundamental law 10. 通过投票选举来表示其意思 express their will through the ballot box 11. 严重不法行为 extreme misconduct 12. 渎职行为 malfeasance13. 弹劾程序 process of impeachment 14. 第二条第四款 article II, section4 15. 弹劾案 bill of impreachment 16. 众议院 House of Representatives 17. 参议院 Senate 18. 严厉措施 drastic measure 19. 众议院司法委员会 House Judiciary Committee 20. 生效 enter into force21. 无效 have no force22. 司法解释 judicial interpretation 23. 叁权分立 separation of powers 24. 制衡原则 checks and balance 25. 滥用职权 excesses 26. 行政法令合条例 executive acts and regulations 27. 马伯里诉麦迪逊案 case of Marbury vs Madison 28. 司法审查原则 the doctrine of judicial review 29. 合宪性constitutionality30. 酸度测试 / 严格检验 acid test31. 否决 veto32. 特赦 grant pardons for 33. 拨款appropriate funds for34. （法规、条约等的）序言、 导言 preamble35. 联邦条例 Articles of Confederation 36. 权力的滥用 excessive power 37. 英国普通法中的 “自然正义原则 ” principles of “ Natural Justice 7. 人权法案 the Bill of Rights（美国 1787 宪法前十条修正条款的合称）under British Common Law。
2024年何家弘法律英语彩色课件
2024年何家弘法律英语彩色课件一、教学内容本讲内容选自《法律英语》教材第八章“国际商事仲裁”，具体内容包括：国际商事仲裁的定义、特点、程序、法律适用、裁决的承认与执行等。
二、教学目标1. 理解并掌握国际商事仲裁的基本概念、程序及法律适用。
2. 培养学生运用法律英语进行国际商事仲裁相关文件的制作和翻译能力。
3. 提高学生的国际商事仲裁实践操作能力，使其具备一定的实务处理技巧。
三、教学难点与重点教学难点：国际商事仲裁的程序、法律适用及裁决的承认与执行。
教学重点：国际商事仲裁的基本概念、特点以及相关实务操作。
四、教具与学具准备1. 教具：多媒体课件、投影仪、黑板。
五、教学过程1. 导入：通过讲解一个实际案例，引导学生思考国际商事仲裁在实际应用中的重要作用。
2. 理论讲解：a. 介绍国际商事仲裁的定义、特点。
b. 详细讲解国际商事仲裁的程序、法律适用。
c. 阐述裁决的承认与执行的相关规定。
3. 例题讲解：分析一个实际的国际商事仲裁案例，让学生了解仲裁程序的具体操作。
4. 随堂练习：针对案例进行分组讨论，让学生模拟仲裁程序，提高实践操作能力。
六、板书设计1. 国际商事仲裁的定义、特点。
2. 国际商事仲裁程序、法律适用。
3. 裁决的承认与执行。
七、作业设计1. 作业题目：a. 简述国际商事仲裁的定义、特点。
b. 分析一个国际商事仲裁案例，阐述其程序及法律适用。
c. 论述裁决的承认与执行的相关规定。
2. 答案：a. 略。
b. 略。
c. 略。
八、课后反思及拓展延伸2. 拓展延伸：a. 推荐阅读：《国际商事仲裁案例解析》。
b. 组织学生参加模拟国际商事仲裁比赛，提高实践能力。
c. 引导学生关注国际商事仲裁的最新动态，了解国际仲裁实践的发展趋势。
重点和难点解析1. 国际商事仲裁的程序2. 法律适用3. 裁决的承认与执行4. 例题讲解与实践操作一、国际商事仲裁的程序国际商事仲裁程序是整个教学过程中的核心，涉及仲裁申请、仲裁庭组成、仲裁审理、仲裁裁决等环节。
法律法规优质课件法律英语何家弘
法律法规优质课件法律英语何家弘一、教学内容本节课选自《法律英语》教材第八章“法律法规”，具体内容包括：法律法规的基本概念、分类及法律英语表达方式；中国法律体系简介及主要法律法规介绍；案例分析及法律英语术语的运用。
二、教学目标1. 让学生掌握法律法规的基本概念、分类及法律英语表达方式；2. 培养学生运用法律英语进行案例分析的能力；3. 增进学生对我国法律体系的了解，提高法律素养。
三、教学难点与重点难点：法律英语术语的运用、案例分析。
重点：法律法规的基本概念、分类及法律英语表达方式。
四、教具与学具准备1. 教具：PPT、黑板、粉笔；2. 学具：法律英语教材、笔记本、字典。
五、教学过程1. 导入：通过讲解一个实际案例，引出法律法规的重要性，激发学生学习兴趣；2. 讲解：详细讲解法律法规的基本概念、分类及法律英语表达方式；3. 案例分析：分组讨论，让学生运用法律英语分析案例，培养学生的实际运用能力；4. 课堂互动：提问、解答，巩固所学知识；6. 课后作业布置：布置作业，巩固所学知识。
六、板书设计1. 法律法规基本概念2. 法律法规分类3. 法律英语表达方式4. 案例分析七、作业设计1. 作业题目：（1）请简述法律法规的基本概念及分类；案例：张某因盗窃罪被判处有期徒刑三年，缓刑五年。
在缓刑期间，张某再次盗窃，被公安机关抓获。
2. 答案：（1）基本概念：法律法规是国家制定或认可的，具有普遍约束力的规范性文件。
分类：宪法、法律、行政法规、地方性法规、自治条例、部门规章、司法解释等。
（2）Legal provisions stipulate that minors are not allowed to smoke in China.八、课后反思及拓展延伸重点和难点解析1. 教学目标中关于案例分析能力的培养；2. 教学难点：法律英语术语的运用；3. 教学过程中的案例分析环节；4. 作业设计中的案例分析题目及答案。
2024年【精品课件】何家弘法律英语课件
2024年【精品课件】何家弘法律英语课件一、教学内容二、教学目标1. 掌握基本的法律英语词汇，能够熟练运用在法律语境中；2. 学会分析法律英语句型结构，提高阅读和翻译能力；3. 了解法律文书的翻译技巧，能独立完成法律文书的翻译任务；4. 通过分析涉外法律实务案例，培养学生的法律英语思维和实际运用能力。
三、教学难点与重点1. 教学难点：法律英语词汇的记忆与运用、法律文书的翻译技巧、涉外法律实务案例的解读；2. 教学重点：法律英语句型的结构与用法、法律文书的翻译实践、法律英语思维能力的培养。
四、教具与学具准备1. 教具：多媒体教学设备、投影仪、黑板；2. 学具：教材、《法律英语词典》、翻译软件、课外阅读材料。
五、教学过程1. 导入：通过讲解一个涉外法律案例，引发学生对法律英语的兴趣，引出本节课的内容；2. 知识讲解：详细讲解基本法律英语词汇、句型结构、法律文书翻译技巧；3. 例题讲解：分析具体案例，示范翻译过程，讲解注意事项；4. 随堂练习：让学生翻译一段法律文书，巩固所学知识；5. 互动环节：学生互相讨论翻译成果，教师点评并解答疑问；7. 课后作业布置：布置作业，要求学生运用所学知识完成翻译任务。
六、板书设计1. 法律英语词汇表；2. 法律英语句型结构图；3. 法律文书翻译技巧；4. 涉外法律实务案例解析。
七、作业设计1. 作业题目：翻译一篇涉及合同纠纷的涉外法律文书；2. 答案：待学生完成作业后，教师批改并给出答案。
八、课后反思及拓展延伸2. 拓展延伸：推荐课外阅读材料，引导学生深入学习法律英语，提高实际运用能力。
重点和难点解析1. 法律英语词汇的记忆与运用；2. 法律英语句型的结构与用法；3. 法律文书的翻译技巧；4. 涉外法律实务案例的解读；5. 课后作业的设计与反馈。
详细补充和说明：一、法律英语词汇的记忆与运用1. 词义辨析：通过例句和实务案例，讲解词汇在法律语境中的具体含义，帮助学生准确理解和记忆；2. 词汇运用：设计练习题，让学生将所学词汇运用到具体语境中，提高词汇运用能力；3. 词汇拓展：介绍词汇的近义词、反义词，提高学生的词汇量。
法律英语-何家弘(课文)
Lesson One: Legal System 法律制度Background背景自从哥伦布(Christopher Columbus)于1492年航行至美洲之后，大批欧洲人便开始拥向这片"新大陆"。
不过，人们通常把第一批英国定居者(the first English settlers)于1607年到达弗吉尼亚(Virginia)的詹姆斯顿(Jamestown)视为美国法律制度历史的起点。
美国法制史可以大体上分为两个时期，即英属殖民地时期(the Period of the English Colonies)和美利坚合众国时期(the Period of the United States)。
虽然美国的法律制度是在英国法律传统的基础上形成和发展起来的，但是在近四百年的历史进程中，美国的法律制度也形成了一些不同于英国法律制度的特点，如公诉制度(public prosecution)等。
美国属于普通法系(Common Law Legal System)国家，其法律制度有两个基本特点：其一是以分散制(decentralization)为原则；其二是以判例法(case law)为主体。
美国除联邦政府外，还有州政府、县政府、市政府、镇政府等等，而且这些政府都是相互独立的，各自在其管辖范围内享有一定的立法权和执法权。
因此，有人说美国是"一个有许多政府的国家"(a country of many governments)；而美国的法律体系则是一个"零散的无系统"(fragmental no system)。
诚然，美国现在也有很多成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law)，但是其法律制度仍是以判例法为主体的。
换言之，"遵从前例"(stare decisis)仍然是美国司法活动中最重要的原则之一。
以上两点对于理解美国的法律制度具有重要意义。
何家弘法律英语课件
何家弘法律英语课件一、教学内容本节课的教学内容选自《法律英语》教材的第五章，主要涉及合同法的基本概念、合同的成立和生效要件、合同的履行和解除等内容。
通过本节课的学习，使学生掌握合同法的基本知识，提高法律英语的听说读写能力。
二、教学目标1. 了解合同法的基本概念和合同的成立、生效要件；2. 能够运用英语描述合同法相关条款，提高法律英语表达能力；3. 培养学生独立思考、合作探讨的能力。
三、教学难点与重点1. 重点：合同法的基本概念、合同的成立和生效要件；2. 难点：合同的履行和解除、法律英语的翻译和表达。
四、教具与学具准备1. 教具：多媒体课件、投影仪；2. 学具：教材、笔记本、文具。
五、教学过程1. 情景引入：通过一个真实的合同纠纷案例，引发学生对合同法的兴趣，引导学生进入学习状态；2. 教材讲解：讲解合同法的基本概念、合同的成立和生效要件，结合实际案例进行分析；3. 互动环节：组织学生进行小组讨论，探讨合同的履行和解除问题，培养学生合作探讨的能力；4. 实务操作：邀请律师进行实务讲解，让学生了解合同法在实际工作中的应用；5. 课堂练习：布置练习题，检测学生对合同法的掌握程度；六、板书设计合同法基本概念合同合同当事人合同标的合同成立要件要约承诺合同条款合同生效要件主体资格意思表示真实合同内容合法合同履行与解除履行原则履行方式解除条件七、作业设计1. 请简述合同法的基本概念及其特点；2. 请列举合同成立的三个要件，并结合实例进行分析；3. 请论述合同生效的要件及其意义；4. 请描述合同履行的原则和方式；5. 请分析合同解除的条件及其法律后果。
八、课后反思及拓展延伸本节课通过案例引入、教材讲解、小组讨论等形式，使学生掌握了合同法的基本知识。
但在实务操作环节，可以进一步增加律师的互动，让学生更深入地了解合同法在实际工作中的应用。
可以组织学生参观法院或律师事务所，加深对法律实务的认识。
重点和难点解析一、教学内容本节课的教学内容选自《法律英语》教材的第五章，主要涉及合同法的基本概念、合同的成立和生效要件、合同的履行和解除等内容。
何家弘法律英语课件法律系统
何家弘法律英语课件法律系统一、教学内容本课件依据《何家弘法律英语》教材第五章“法律系统”展开。
详细内容包括法律系统的基本概念、构成要素、主要功能和运行机制。
具体涉及法律体系、立法、司法、执法等基本知识点，并通过案例分析，让学生深入了解我国法律系统的实际运作。
二、教学目标1. 理解并掌握法律系统的基本概念、构成要素和主要功能。
2. 了解我国法律系统的运行机制，提高法律意识和法律素养。
3. 培养学生的法律逻辑思维和分析问题的能力。
三、教学难点与重点教学难点：法律系统的运行机制、法律体系与法律制度的关系。
教学重点：法律系统的基本概念、构成要素和主要功能。
四、教具与学具准备1. 教具：PPT课件、黑板、粉笔。
2. 学具：教材、笔记本、文具。
五、教学过程1. 导入：通过一个实际案例，引导学生思考法律在现实生活中的作用，引出法律系统的概念。
2. 新课内容：详细讲解法律系统的基本概念、构成要素、主要功能和运行机制。
（1）基本概念：介绍法律系统的定义、特点。
（2）构成要素：分析法律体系、法律制度、法律规范等要素。
（3）主要功能：阐述法律系统的维护秩序、保障权利、促进发展等功能。
（4）运行机制：讲解立法、司法、执法等环节的运行机制。
3. 例题讲解：分析一个实际案例，让学生了解法律系统在实际运作中的具体应用。
4. 随堂练习：针对教学内容，设计一些选择题、简答题，检验学生对知识点的掌握。
六、板书设计1. 法律系统的基本概念2. 法律系统的构成要素法律体系法律制度法律规范3. 法律系统的功能维护秩序保障权利促进发展4. 法律系统的运行机制立法司法执法七、作业设计1. 作业题目：（1）简述法律系统的基本概念。
（2）分析我国法律系统的构成要素及其相互关系。
（3）结合实际案例，谈谈你对法律系统功能的认识。
2. 答案：（1）法律系统是由法律体系、法律制度、法律规范等要素构成，以维护社会秩序、保障公民权利、促进社会发展为目标的系统。
何家弘法律英语第四版翻译完整版
法律英语何家弘编第四版课文翻译(1-20课)第一课美国法律制度介绍第一部分特征与特点美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。
与许多别的国家相比它是一个新的国家。
同时，它还因新人口成分和新州的加入而持续更新，在此意义上，它也是新国家。
但是在其它的意义上它是老国家。
它是最老的“新”国家——第一个由旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家。
它拥有最古老的成文宪法、最古老的持续的联邦体制以及最古老的民族自治实践。
美国的年轻（性）有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后。
因此它的整个历史都得以记录下来：确实可以很有把握地说，任何其它国家都没有像美国这样全面的历史记录，因为像在意大利、法国或者英国过去的传说中湮没的那样的事件在美国都成了有文字记载的历史之一部分。
而且其记录不仅全面，还非常浩繁。
不仅包括这个国家自1776年以来的殖民时期的记录，还有当前五十个州以及各州和联邦（nation）之间错综复杂的关系网络的历史记录。
因此，据一个非常简单的例子，美国最高法院判例汇编有大约350卷，而一些州的判例汇编也几乎有同样多的卷数：想研究美国法律史的读者要面对的是超过5000巨卷的司法案例。
我们不能说一个文件或几个文件就能揭示出一国人民或其政府的特性。
但如果横跨一百多年的千百万个文件敲出始终如一的音调，我们就有理由说这就是其主调。
当千百万个文件都以同样的方式去解决同样的中心问题，我们就有理由从中得出可以被称为国民特定的确定结论。
第二部分普通法和衡平法同英国一样，美国法律制度从方法论上来说主要是一种判例法制度。
许多私法领域仍然主要是由判例法构成，广泛而不断增长的制定法一直受制于有约束力的（解释制定法的）判例法。
因此，判例法方法的知识以及使用判例法的技巧对于理解美国法律和法律方法是极其重要的。
从历史的角度来看，普通法就是由英国皇家法院的巡回法官的判决所得出的普通的一般法——优于地方法。
采纳或执行某项诉讼请求是以存在法院令状这种特殊形式的诉为前提的，而这就使最初的普通法表现为由类似于古罗马法的“诉”所构成的体系。
法律英语_何家弘编_第四版课文翻译(1-20课)
第一课美国法律制度介绍第一部分特征与特点美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。
与许多别的国家相比它是一个新的国家。
同时，它还因新人口成分和新州的加入而持续更新，在此意义上，它也是新国家。
但是在其它的意义上它是老国家。
它是最老的“新”国家——第一个由旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家。
它拥有最古老的成文宪法、最古老的持续的联邦体制以及最古老的民族自治实践。
美国的年轻（性）有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后。
因此它的整个历史都得以记录下来：确实可以很有把握地说，任何其它国家都没有像美国这样全面的历史记录，因为像在意大利、法国或者英国过去的传说中湮没的那样的事件在美国都成了有文字记载的历史之一部分。
而且其记录不仅全面，还非常浩繁。
不仅包括这个国家自1776年以来的殖民时期的记录，还有当前五十个州以及各州和联邦（nation）之间错综复杂的关系网络的历史记录。
因此，据一个非常简单的例子，美国最高法院判例汇编有大约350卷，而一些州的判例汇编也几乎有同样多的卷数：想研究美国法律史的读者要面对的是超过5000巨卷的司法案例。
我们不能说一个文件或几个文件就能揭示出一国人民或其政府的特性。
但如果横跨一百多年的千百万个文件敲出始终如一的音调，我们就有理由说这就是其主调。
当千百万个文件都以同样的方式去解决同样的中心问题，我们就有理由从中得出可以被称为国民特定的确定结论。
第二部分普通法和衡平法同英国一样，美国法律制度从方法论上来说主要是一种判例法制度。
许多私法领域仍然主要是由判例法构成，广泛而不断增长的制定法一直受制于有约束力的（解释制定法的）判例法。
因此，判例法方法的知识以及使用判例法的技巧对于理解美国法律和法律方法是极其重要的。
从历史的角度来看，普通法就是由英国皇家法院的巡回法官的判决所得出的普通的一般法——优于地方法。
采纳或执行某项诉讼请求是以存在法院令状这种特殊形式的诉为前提的，而这就使最初的普通法表现为由类似于古罗马法的“诉”所构成的体系。
14Commercial Law 何家弘法律英语配套课件
8
Federalism
The power over commerce might … include the power to promote the economic welfare of the citizens throughout the country.
增加经济福利
2020/9/30
法律英语
给予国会权力也可以被看成是将这些事 项交给国会，并取消州管理地方事务的 某些权力。
2020/9/30
法律英语
10
It can been seen that
Absent some further restriction upon the power, it might indeed be the functional equivalent of a generalized “police power” because much of the activity which takes place within the country, and even within a single state, might be said to relate to economic issues and problems.
2020/9/30
法律英语
2
Commercial law State law
The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws 统一各州法律全国代表大会
The Uniform Commercial Code
2020/9/30
法律英语
3
Part one
Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution(commercial clause)
法律英语-何家弘编-第四版课文翻译(1-20课)
美国的年轻(性)有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后。因此它的整个历史都得以记录下来：确实可以很有把握地说，任何其它国家都没有像美国这样全面的历史记录，因为像在意大利、法国或者英国过去的传说中湮没的那样的事件在美国都成了有文字记载的历史之一部分。而且其记录不仅全面，还非常浩繁。不仅包括这个国家自1776年以来的殖民时期的记录，还有当前五十个州以及各州和联邦(nation)之间错综复杂的关系网络的历史记录。因此，据一个非常简单的例子，美国最高法院判例汇编有大约350卷，而一些州的判例汇编也几乎有同样多的卷数：想研究美国法律史的读者要面对的是超过5000巨卷的司法案例。
但是由于新的法律领域随着当代问题的出现而不断发展，一些法学院将课程予以扩展，包括环境法方面的课程和诊所式课程，住房和城市发展、女权、工作场所的健康、福利权以及消费者保护等。并且还越来越多地以交叉学科的背景讲授法律，向其他学科靠近，如历史、心理学、社会学、医学以及经济学等。
何家弘法律英语课件法律系统
何家弘法律英语课件法律系统一、教学内容本节课我们将探讨《法律英语》教材第四章“法律系统”的内容。
详细内容包括法律体系的结构、各国的法律传统、法律制定与实施过程、以及法律职业等。
二、教学目标1. 理解并掌握法律系统的基本概念和构成要素；2. 了解世界各国法律体系的差异及特点；3. 掌握法律制定与实施的基本过程，提高法律实践能力。
三、教学难点与重点教学难点：法律体系的概念、法律制定与实施过程、各国法律传统的特点。
教学重点：法律系统的结构、法律职业的分类及职责。
四、教具与学具准备1. 教具：多媒体课件、黑板、粉笔；五、教学过程1. 导入：通过一则实际案例，引发学生对法律系统的思考。
2. 新课内容：（1）法律系统的概念与构成要素。
（2）各国法律体系的差异及特点。
（3）法律制定与实施过程。
（4）法律职业的分类及职责。
3. 例题讲解：以我国法律体系为例，分析其构成和特点。
4. 随堂练习：让学生列举出其他国家的法律体系，并简要介绍其特点。
六、板书设计1. 法律系统的概念与构成要素；2. 各国法律体系的差异及特点；3. 法律制定与实施过程；4. 法律职业的分类及职责。
七、作业设计1. 作业题目：（1）简述我国法律体系的构成和特点。
（2）比较英美法系和大陆法系的异同。
（3）分析一个实际案例，说明法律制定与实施的过程。
2. 答案：（1）我国法律体系包括宪法、行政法、民法、刑法、经济法、诉讼法等。
（2）英美法系以判例法为主，大陆法系以成文法为主。
（3）以某起交通事故案件为例，分析法律制定与实施的过程。
八、课后反思及拓展延伸2. 拓展延伸：鼓励学生阅读法律方面的经典著作，了解法律体系的起源和发展，提高法律素养。
重点和难点解析1. 教学内容中的法律体系概念与构成要素；2. 教学目标中的了解世界各国法律体系的差异及特点；3. 教学难点与重点中的法律制定与实施过程；4. 教学过程中的例题讲解与随堂练习；5. 作业设计中的实际案例分析。
05 何家弘法律英语配套课件
2020/10/1
LAWYER
14
Do you want to be a lawyer?
2020/10/1
LAWYER
15
Public defender公设辩护律师，在美国领 取政府工资，在刑事案件中提供法律援 助的律师。
2020/10/1
LAWYER
11
Solicitor一词源自英格兰法律，多用 于英国、新加坡等国和香港地区， 又称初级律师、诉讼律师，在香港 称为事务律师，多从事诉讼、咨询 等事务性工作，有资格出席初级法 庭包括刑事案件的庭审。
Counselor-at-law又拼为counselor at law 用法同counselor和counselor at law。
Defense counsel指辩护律师。
2020/10/1
LAWYER
7
Esquire主要用于美国，是对律师的 尊称，多以缩写形式出现，加在律 师姓名之后，如John Smith Esq., Yajun Ge Esq.。
Family lawyer理解为家庭律师，有 点私人律师的意思。
Gentleman of the (long) robe是对律 师的比喻性称谓，不直接修饰某律 师。
2020/10/1
LAWYER
8
Government lawyer指政府律师。
House counsel，又称corporate
counsel, house attorney, in house counsel,指美国、新加坡等英美法系 国家中受聘于公司从事法律事务的 专业人事，他们虽然也出庭，但更 多从事公司法律性事务，甚至参与 公司的经营管理。
2020/10/1
LAWYER
法律英语-何家弘
Part One The United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation. It is a new nation compared with many other countries, and it is new, too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States. But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony. It has the oldest written constitution, the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of self-government of any nation.One of the most interesting features of America’s youth is that the whole of its history belongs in the period since the invention of the printing press. The whole of its history is, therefore, recorded: indeed, it is safe to say that no other major nation has so comprehensive a record of its history as has the United States, for events such as those that are lost in the legendary past of Italy or France or England are part of the printed record of the United States. And the American record is not only comprehensive; it is immense. It embraces not only the record of the colonial era and of the Nation since 1776, but of the present fifty States as well, and the intricate network of relationships between States and Nation. Thus, to take a very elementary example, the reports of the United States Supreme Court fill some 350 volumes, and the reports of some States are almost equally voluminous: the reader who wants to trace the history of law in America is confronted with over 5,000 stout volumes of legal cases.No one document, no handful of documents, can properly be said to reveal the character of a people or of their government. But when hundreds and thousands of documents strike a consistent note, over more than a hundred years, we have a right to say that is the keynote. When hundreds and thousands of documents address themselves in the same ways, to the same overarching problems, we have a right to read from them certain conclusions which we can call national characteristics.Part Two The American legal system, like the English, is methodologically mainly a case law system. Most fields of private law still consist primarily of case law and the extensive and steadily growing statutory law continues to be subject to binding interpretationthrough case law. Knowledge of the case law method as well as of the technique of working with case law therefore is of central importance for an understanding of American law and legal methodology.The Common Law is historically the common general law -- with supremacy over local law--which was decreed by the itinerant judges of the English royal court. The enforcement of a claim presupposed the existence of a special form of action, a writ, with the result that the original common law represented a system of "actions" similar to that of classical Roman law. If a writ existed (in 1227) a claim could be enforced; there was no recourse for a claim without a writ, the claim did not exist. This system became inflexible when the "Provisions of Oxford" (1258) prohibited the creation of new writs, except for the flexibility which the "writ upon the case" allowed and which later led to the development of contract and tort law.The narrow limits of the forms of action and the limited recourse they provided led to the development of equity law and equity case law. "Equity", in its general meaning of doing "equity", deciding ex aequo et bono, was first granted by the King, and later by his Chancellor as "keeper of the King's conscience", to afford relief in hardship cases. In the fifteenth century, however, equity law and equity case law developed into an independent legal system and judiciary (Court of Chancery) which competed with the ordinary common law courts. Its rules and maxims became fixed and, to a degree, inflexible as in any legal system. Special characteristics of equity law include: relief in the form of specific performance (in contrast to the common law award of compensatory damages), the injunction (a temporary or final order to do or not to do a specific act), the development of so called maxims of equity law which permeated the entire legal system and in many cases explain the origin of modern legal concepts. However, equitable relief regularly will lie only when the common law relief is inadequate. For instance, specific performance for the purchase of real property will be granted because common law damages are deemed to be inadequate since they cannot compensate the buyer in view of the uniqueness attributedto real property.As the common law, equity law became part of American law either through judicial acceptance or through express statutory provision. Today, both legal systems have been merged in many American jurisdictions (beginning with New York in 1848), with the result that there is only one form of civil suit in these jurisdictions as well as in federal practice. Only few States continue to maintain a separate chancery court. Nevertheless, the reference to the historical development is important because, on the one hand, it explains the origin and significance of many contemporary legal concepts (for instance the division of title in the law of property) and, on the other hand, it is still relevant for the decision of such questions whether, for instance, there is a right to a trial by jury (only in the case of common law suits, in other cases only before the judge). In addition, the differentiation will determine whether the "ordinary" common law relief of damages applies or whether the "extraordinary" equity remedy of specific performance is available."Case law"describes the entire body of judge made law and today includes common law and equity precedents. In imprecise and confusing usage the terms "common law" and "case law" are often used synonymously, with the term "common law" in this usage connoting judge made law in general as contrasted with statutory law. "Case law" always connotes judge made law, while "common law" in contrast--depending on the meaning intended--describes either the judge made law in common law subject matters or, more extensively, all judge made law.Part One：The Bar The regulation of the legal profession is primarily the concern of the states, each of which has its own requirements for admission to practice. Most require three years of college and a law degree. Each state administers its own written examination to applicants for its bar. Almost all states, however, make use of the Multistate Bar Exam, a day long multiple choice test, to which the state adds a day long essay examination emphasizing its own law. A substantial fraction of all applicants succeed on the first try, andmany of those who fail pass on a later attempt. In all, over forty thousand persons succeed in passing these examinations each year and, after an inquiry into their character, are admitted to the bar in their respective states. No apprenticeship is required either before or after admission. The rules for admission to practice before the federal courts vary with the court, but generally those entitled to practice before the highest court of a state may be admitted before the federal courts upon compliance with minor formalities.A lawyer's practice is usually confined to a single community for, although a lawyer may travel to represent clients, one is only permitted to practice in a state where one has been admitted. It is customary to retain local counsel for matters in other jurisdictions. However, one who moves to another state can usually be admitted without examination if one has practiced in a state where one has been admitted for some time, often five years.A lawyer may not only practice law, but is permitted to engage in any activity that is open to other citizens. It is not uncommon for the practicing lawyer to serve on boards of directors of corporate clients, to engage in business, and to participate actively in public affairs. A lawyer remains a member of the bar even after becoming a judge, an employee of the government or of a private business concern, or a law teacher, and may return to private practice from these other activities. A relatively small number of lawyers give up practice for responsible executive positions in commerce and industry. The mobility as well as the sense of public responsibility in the profession is evidenced by the career of Harlan Fiske Stone who was, at various times, a successful New York lawyer, a professor and dean of the Columbia School of Law, Attorney General of the United States, and Chief Justice of the United States.There is no formal division among lawyers according to function. The distinction between barristers and solicitors found in England did not take root in the United States, and there is no branch of the profession that has a special or exclusive right to appear in court, nor is there a branch that specializes in the preparation of legal instruments. The American lawyer’s domain includes advocacy,counselling, and drafting. Furthermore, within the sphere broadly defined as the "practice of law" the domain is exclusive and is not open to others. In the field of advocacy, the rules are fairly clear: any individual may represent himself or herself in court but, with the exception of a few inferior courts, only a lawyer may represent another in court. Nonlawyers are, however, authorized to represent others in formal proceedings of a judicial nature before some administrative agencies. The lines of demarcation are less clear in the areas of counselling and drafting of legal instruments, as for example between the practice of law and that of accounting in the field of federal income taxation. However, the strict approach of most American courts is indicated by a decision of New York’s highest court that a lawyer admitted to practice in a foreign country but not in New York is prohibited from giving legal advice to clients in New York, even though the advice is limited to the law of the foreign country where the lawyer is admitted. A foreign lawyer may, however, be admitted to the bar of one of the states and may, even without being admitted, advise an American lawyer as a consultant on foreign law.Part Two：Lawyers in Private Practice Among these fifteen lawyers in practice, nine, a clear majority, are single practitioners. The remaining six practice in law firms, which are generally organized as partnerships. Four or five of these six are partners and the others are associates, a term applied to salaried lawyers employed by a firm or another lawyer. This trend toward group practice is of relatively recent origin. Throughout most of the nineteenth century law practice was general rather than specialized, its chief ingredient was advocacy rather than counselling and drafting, and the prototype of the American lawyer was the single practitioner. Marked specialization began in the latter part of that century in the large cities near the financial centers. With the growth of big business, big government, and big labor, the work of the lawyer accomodated itself to the needs of clients for expert counselling and drafting to prevent as well as to settle disputes. The best lawyers were attracted to this work and leadership of the bar gravitated to persons whorarely if ever appeared in court and who were sought after as advisors, planners, and negotiators. Today the lawyer regards it as sound practice to be continuously familiar with clients business problems and to participate at all steps in the shaping of their policies. Major business transactions are rarely undertaken without advice of counsel.Part Three: House Counsel Out of every twenty lawyers, two are employed by private business concerns, such as industrial corporations, insurance companies, and banks, usually as house or corporate counsel in the concern’s legal department. The growth of corporations, the complexity of business, and the multitude of problems posed by government regulation make it desirable for such firms to have in their employ persons with legal training who, at the same time, are intimately familiar with the particular problems and conditions of the firm. In large corporations the legal department may number one hundred or more. The general counsel, who heads the office, is usually an officer of the company and may serve on important policy making committees and perhaps even on the board of directors. House counsel remain members of the bar and are entitled to appear in court, though an outside lawyer is often retained for litigation. However, it is the house counsel s skill as advisor rather than as advocate that is a valued asset. Constantly in touch with the employer s problems, house counsel is ideally situated to practice preventive law and may also be called upon to advise the company on its broader obligation to the public and the nation.Part Four：Lawyers in Government A parallel development has taken place in government and two out of twenty lawyers are now employees of the federal, state, county, and municipal governments, exclusive of the judiciary. Many of those entering public service are recent law graduates who find government salaries sufficiently attractive at this stage of their careers and seek the training that such service may offer as a prelude to private practice. Limitations on top salaries, however, discourage some from continuing with thegovernment. The majority serves by appointment in the legal departments of a variety of federal and state agencies and local entities. The United States Department of Justice alone employs more than two thousands, and the Law Department of the City of New York more than four hundreds. Others are engaged as public prosecutors. Federal prosecutors, the United States attorneys and their assistants, are appointed by the President and are subordinate to the Attorney General of the United States. State prosecutors, sometimes known as district attorneys, are commonly elected by each county and are not under the control of the state attorney general. As a rule, lawyers in government are directly engaged in legal work, since law training is infrequently sought as preparation for general government service. However, a small but important minority that constitutes an exception to this rule consists of those who have been appointed to high executive positions and those who have been elected to political office. Though the participation of lawyers in government has declined recently, for two centuries lawyers have made up roughly half of the Congress of the United States and of the state governors. These figures bear out the comment of Chief Justice Stone that, "No tradition of our profession is more cherished by lawyers than that of its leadership in public affairs."Lesson Three: Legal Education In 1983, over 125,000 law students were studying in more than 170 ABA accredited law schools including public law schools supported in part by government funds; private law schools supported by contributions from individuals and foundation funds; and local or national schools offering full time or part time legal study programs. As virtually the only way to prepare for membership in the legal profession, law schools in the United States fulfill several functions including professional training and socialization of future lawyers and screening and gatekeeping for entrance to the profession. Since there is no central institution where all lawyers practice, the only institutional experience which lawyers have in common is law school.The criticisms which range from "mild to caustic" of the way in which law schools have carried out these functions and of the functions themselves have been persistent, diverse and rooted in the historical and political development of the profession. These criticisms have focussed on the curriculum and the dominance of the case method; the distribution of power and prestige reflected in the hierarchy within and among the law schools; and the imbalance in terms of women and minorities in the student body and faculty in the law schools.Part One：Curriculum and the Case Method The traditional first year program offered in virtually all American law schools includes contracts, torts, property, criminal law and civil procedure. Duncan Kennedy has described the traditional first year curriculum as basically teaching the ground rules for late 19th century laissez faire capitalism. The second year and third year course expound the moderate reformist New Deal program and the administrative structure of the modern regulatory state. The peripheral subjects, if they are offered, include legal philosophy, legal history, legal process, and clinical education, a "kind of playground or finishing school for learning the social art of self presentation as a lawyer".However, as new areas of the law continue to develop in response to contemporary issues and problems, some law schools have expanded curricula to include courses and clinical programs in environmental law, housing and urban development, women s rights, health in the workplace, welfare rights and consumer protection. There are also increasing efforts to teach law in interdisciplinary contexts, drawing on other disciplines such as history, psychology, sociology, medicine, and economics.In teaching the traditional curriculum, law teachers in almost all the law schools use to some extent the case method or the Socratic method. Developed in the 1870s by Christopher Columbus Langdell at the Harvard Law School, the case method looked to thecommon law as the source of legal priniciples and focussed on the teaching of an abstract conception of the law as a science. The legal principles elicited were to be taught divorced from the "grubby world of practice--and also from politics, history, economics, and social contexts". This narrow formalistic approach was justified on the ground that it taught students how to state, analyze, evaluate and compare concrete fact situations thus developing their powers and skills of analysis, reasoning, and expression.However, this process of learning "how to think like a lawyer" has been criticized as having an adverse impact both on the students and the quality of future lawyering. Students, law teachers, and others have pointed to the alienation, anxiety, hostility and aggression caused by use of the case method or Socratic method. The narrow and destructive interaction of this dialogue, or often "nondialogue", contributes to the impairment of the ability to care about other people, a professional unemotionalism and cynicism on the part of law students. And it is not only the law students who suffer from this narrowing of their professional selves. The work of a lawyer involves continuous contacts with clients, associates, other lawyers, judges, witnesses, others affected by the law, and involves the lawyer s own goals, attitudes, performance, and sense of satisfaction.Part Two：Law School Hierarchy Duncan Kennedy has described the law schools as "intensely political places", characterized by a "trade school mentality, the endless attention to trees at the expense of forests." The law schools function as the institution for "ideological training for willing service in the hierarchies of the corporate welfare state". In the ranking and evaluation of students, students learn to accept their place in a hierarchy which is presented as just and inevitable and "so prepare themselves for all the hierarchies to follow". In the law teacher’s modeling of hierarchical relationships with students, colleagues, secretaries and support staff, students learn a particular style of condescension towards perceived inferiors and deference towards perceived superiors. And under thesubtle but intense pressure to conform to the "white, male, middle class tone" set by law faculties which are overwhelmingly white, male, and middle class, law students adapt, "partly out of fear, partly out of hope of gain, partly out of genuine admiration for their role models". In these ways, "legal education is one of the causes of legal hierarchy. Legal education supports it by analogy, provides it a general legitimating ideology by justifying the rules that underlie it, and provides it a particular ideology by mystifying legal reasoning. Legal education structures the pool of prospective lawyers so that their hierarchical organization seems inevitable, and trains them to look and think and act just like all the other lawyers in the system" .In addition to the hierarchy within the law schools suggested by Kennedy, other analyses of the law schools functions and relationship to the profession suggest the existence of a hierarchy among the law schools. The top dozen or so elite law schools occupy a position of power and prestige which is partially reflected in the professional career paths of their graduates and in the "old boy networks" connecting the law schools and the rest of the legal profession. The models of the "law school as the gateway to the American power elite became possible with the New Deal". Felix Frankfurter’s placement network for the "best and the brightest" into influential public policy positions during the New Deal in the 1930s was an early example of this kind of network. During his tenure at Harvard and later while on the Supreme Court, Frankfurter developed an "old boy network" which was intimately involved with the placement of many of the "elite" lawyers, all of whom were white and male, into public service. The typical Frankfurter recruit was "a graduate of Harvard Law School, politically liberal, usually ranked high in his class, and either an obvious product of upper class gentile culture or an obvious product of a radically different culture who was 'comfortable' in the upper class gentile world".In the current hiring practices of the major law firms and in the competition for judicial clerkships, and in the appointments to law faculties, the graduates of the elite schools continue to have an advantage over graduates of other schools. In arecent study of Chicago lawyers, Zemans and Rosenblum found that lawyers who attended "high prestige law schools and graduated in the top 20 percent of their classes were much more likely to practice in large firms and specialize in high prestige fields of law". In terms of appointments to law faculties, 60% of the legal profession’s teaching specialists are produced by fewer than 15% of the nation’s accredited law schools. These law teacher producer schools are mostly national, located in urban locations, and include schools such as Harvard, Yale, Columbia, University of Michigan, Chicago, New York University, Northwestern University, and Georgetown. If it is true that the full time faculty of the law schools "have a virtual monopoly on who will and will not enter the (legal) profession" and "on the power to mold future generations", then the existence of a hierarchy among the law schools suggests that an elite group of schools is primarily responsible for staffing the law schools, which in turn produce lawyers for the hierarchies within the profession.Lesson Four：Judicial System 司法系统Part One：CourtsThere are fifty-two separate court systems in the United States. Each state, as well as the District of Columbia, has its own fully developed, independent system of courts and there is a separate federal court system. The federal courts are not superior to the state courts; they are an independent, coordinate system authorized by the United States Constitution, Art. Ⅲ,§2, to handle matters of particular federal interest. The presence of two parallel court systems often raises questions concerning the relationship of the state and federal systems, presenting important issues of federalism. The United States Supreme Court, composed of nine justices, sits as the final and controlling voice over all these systems.Although a few states, such as Nebraska, have a two tiered system, most states, as well as the federal courts, are based on a three tiered model. That means that for any litigant there will be the opportunity to plead his case before a trial court and then, should he lose, there are two levels of appeal at which he ultimately may succeed. For example, in thefederal system the trial court is the United States District Court, of which there is at least one in every state. Many larger states are divided into two, three or even four judicial districts, depending on population, geography and caseload. There are ninety-four districts in the United States and each district court has one judge, or more commonly two or more. After an adverse judgment in the district court, a litigant may appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the circuit in which the district court is located. There are eleven numbered intermediate appellate courts in the federal system, each including anywhere from three to ten states and territories. Additionally, there is a Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, hearing appeals from the federal district court there, and one for the Federal Circuit, taking appeals from various specialized federal tribunals, such as the Claims Court. Each court of appeals has four or more judges who sit in panels of three to review district court decisions, as well as some decisions of administrative agencies. A losing litigant in the court of appeals may, in some cases, be able to obtain review by the United States Supreme Court. Cases in the state courts similarly may proceed through a trial court, a state appellate court, and then the state supreme court. If a federal constitutional question is involved the decision of the state supreme court may be reviewed by the United States Supreme Court. Since 1988, review by the Supreme Court in civil cases is discretionary; virtually all civil appeals as of right to the highest court have been abolished.Three tiered systems vary on the role which the highest court plays. The approaches taken reflect differing philosophies with regard to what the highest court should do. For example, in California only criminal cases in which capital punishment has been imposed are appealable as of right to the state supreme court. Similarly, in the federal courts, except in a few very limited circumstances, appeals to the United States Supreme Court are discretionary, by writ of certiorari. The Court decides for itself what are the most important questions that deserve its attention and will refuse to review decisions raising issues that it feels are not as crucial. In this way it supervises the administration of law by thelower courts on an ad hoc basis. At the other end of the spectrum, such as in New York, appeals to the state’s highest court are as of right in a great many cases provided for by statute. The primary function of the highest court in New York appears to be to assure that cases are correctly decided. It is necessary to check carefully the statutes of the system in which you are appearing to determine the specific rules regarding review by those appellate courts.Part Two：Judges Fewer than one in twenty of those admitted to practice law is a federal, state, county, or municipal court judge. Except for some inferior courts, judges are generally required to be admitted to practice but do not practice while on the bench. There is so little uniformity that it is difficult to generalize further than to point out three salient characteristics that relate to the ranks from which judges are drawn, to the method of their selection, and to their tenure.Judges are drawn from the practicing bar and less frequently from government service or the teaching profession. There is in the United States no career judiciary like that found in many other countries and there is no prescribed route for the young law graduate who aspires to be a judge, no apprenticeship that must be served, no service that must be entered. The outstanding young law graduates who act for a year or two as law clerks to the most distinguished judges of the federal and state courts have only the reward of the experience to take with them into practice and not the promise of a judicial career. While it is not uncommon for a vacancy on a higher court to be filled by a judge from a lower court, even this cannot be said to be the rule. The legal profession is not entirely unaware of the advantages of a career judiciary, but it is generally thought that they are outweighed by the experience and independence which American lawyers bring to the bench. Many of the outstanding judges of the country’s highest courts have had no prior judicial experience. Criticism has centered instead on the prevalent method of selection of judges.State court judges are usually elected, commonly by popular vote, but occassionally by the legislature. Popular election has been。
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对该条款的广义解释，不仅赋予了联邦 对该条款的广义解释，不仅赋予了联邦 政府广泛的权力，而且限制了各州采用 政府广泛的权力，而且限制了各州采用 涉及到由联邦政府控制的商务形式的法 涉及到由联邦政府控制的商务形式的法 律的能力。 律的能力。
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The history of the commerce clause adjudication 商务条款裁决的历史 The history of the concepts of federalism 联邦制度概念的发展史 The development of doctrines supporting a specific federal power 特殊联邦权力原则的发展史
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Federalism
The power over commerce might … include the power to promote the economic welfare of the citizens throughout the country. 增加经济福利
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The grant of power also may be viewed as committing this subject matter to Congress and removing some of the powers of the states to deal with local matters ……
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Commercial law State law
The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws 统一各州法律全国代表大会 The Uniform Commercial Code
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14
Part Two The Supreme Court today interprets the commerce clause as a complete grant of power.
现在，联邦最高法院将商务条款解释 现在，联邦最高法院将商务条款解释 为一种完全的授权 完全的授权。 为一种完全的授权。
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Amendment X
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.
人们可以发现， 人们可以发现，缺少对国会权力的进一 步限制，这种权力可能就相当于一般化 步限制，这种权力可能就相当于一般化 公共权力” 的“公共权力”，因为许多发生在美国 甚至于某个州内的行为都可能与经济问 甚至于某个州内的行为都可能与经济问 题有关。 题有关。
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A broad reading of the clause would not only grant a sweeping power to the federal government but it would also restrict the ability of individual states to adopt laws which burden the forms of commerce which were committed to the control of the federal government.
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Part one
Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution(commercial clause) The Congress shall have power to “regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes” 国会有权“规制与外国的商业活动， 国会有权“规制与外国的商业活动， 与外国的商业活动 州际商业活动，以及与印第安部落的 州际商业活动，以及与印第安部落的 商业活动 与印第安部落 商业活动。 商业活动。”
Lesson Fourteen
Commercial Law
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法律英语
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
1
Background
Commercial Law ：
All the law which applies to the rights, relations and conduct of persons and businesses engaged in commerce, merchandising, trade and sales. In recent years this body of law has been codified in the Uniform Commercial Code, which has been almost universally adopted by the states. (/)
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The federal government
Was granted neither a general police power nor the inherent right to act on any subject matter in order to promote the health, safety or welfare of the people throughout the nation. 联邦政府既没有被赋予一般公共权力 一般公共权力， 联邦政府既没有被赋予一般公共权力，也没 有被赋予改善全国人民健康、 有被赋予改善全国人民健康、安全或社会福 利方面的天生的行为权利 天生的行为权利。 利方面的天生的行为权利。 The framer did grant Congress a power to regulate commerce. 宪法制定者们确实赋予了国会规制商务活动 宪法制定者们确实赋予了国会规制商务活动 的权力。 的权力。
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The brevity of this clause belies the fact
Its interpretation has played a significant role in shaping the concepts of federalism and the permissible uses of national power throughout our history. 这一条款的简短性误导了一个事实 误导了一个事实， 这一条款的简短性误导了一个事实，即: 这一条款的解释在历史上联邦主义概念 这一条款的解释在历史上联邦主义概念 的形成和国家权力的运用方面起了重要 的形成和国家权力的运用方面起了重要 作用。 作用。
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3
The Uniform Commercial Code 统一商法典
A set of statutes governing the conduct of business, sales, warranties, negotiable instruments, loans secured by personal property and other commercial matters, which has been adopted with minor variations by all states except Louisiana.
(/)
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General Provisions 总 则 Sales &Leases 销售与租赁 Negotiable Instruments 商业票据 Bank Deposit and Collections 银行存款和托收 Funds Transfers 资金过户 Letters of Credit 信用证 Bulk Transfers 大宗转让 Warehouse Receipts, Bills of Lading and Other Documents of Title仓单、提单和其它所有权凭证 仓单、 仓单 Investment Securities 投资证券 Secured Transactions 担保交易
给予国会权力也可以被看成是将这些事 给予国会权力也可以被看成是将这些事 项交给国会， 项交给国会，并取消州管理地方事务的 某些权力。 某些权力。
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It can been seen that
Absent some further restriction upon the power, it might indeed be the functional equivalent of a generalized “police power” because much of the activity which takes place within the country, and even within a single state, might be said to relate to economic issues and problems.
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Today the Court will uphold the decisions of Congress So long as there is some rational argument for finding that the items that the Congress regulates fall within the commerce power. 只要有合理的证据证明，国会管理 只要有合理的证据证明， 有合理的证据证明 的事项在商务权力的范围之内 在商务权力的范围之内， 的事项在商务权力的范围之内，最 支持国会的决定。 高法院将支持国会的决定 高法院将支持国会的决定。