语言学Chapter 1
胡壮麟第四版语言学教程第一章大题总结
Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Why study language?2.What is language? Explain it in details.3.What makes language unique to human beings?4.What are the design features of language? List out at least three of them.5.In what sense we say linguistic is a science?6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrariness.7.What is the function of language?8.Do you understand the distinction between the langue and paroleintroduced by Saussure?9.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive10.Synchronic vs. Diachronicpetence vs. Performance1.Why study language?First, language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be considered a worthy job for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to other fields of knowledge rather than as a subject in and of itself. However, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.Second, for a student learning language, some knowledge of language is of both interest and important. To know the general properties of language can help the student have an overview of its. No necessary question to ask for human language, they can understand the details of its different features thereof.Third, let us mention the broader educational concerns. We can note that language plans a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. The understanding of language should not be confined to linguistics, as language is a vital human resource that of us share.2.What is language? Explain it in details.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic, human-specific.It is system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense(从某种意义上说) that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and explained by the fact that different language have different “books” : “book” in English, 书in Chinese, “check” in Korean.It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human language, developed or “new”. The term” human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrarinessArbitrariness is the core feature of language. Saussure holds the idea that the forms of linguistics signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There seems to be differentlevels of arbitrariness:1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its means. You may object to this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words that sound like the sounds they describe. e. g. in Chinese 叮咚,轰隆,叽里咕噜. These linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to be describe the sound. For example, the dog barks bowwow in English but汪汪in Chinese. But there are some misunderstandings about the onomatopoeia effect. As a matter of fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeia effect may work at the same time.2)Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelBy syntax we refer to the ways that sentences areconstructed according to the grammar of arrangement. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence clauses and the rule happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as in this kind of order is concerned. Compared:a)He came in and set down.b)He set down and came in.c)He set down after he came in.Sentence (a) means the man came in first and then set down, but (b) means the opposite perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled(推进去) himself into the room. In (c), with the word “after” help, we can reverse the order of the clauses.3)Arbitrariness and conventionIn fact, the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Here we have to look at the other side of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of foreign language, it is conventionality of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. That may be why when we are burying ourselves memorizing idioms, we feel nothing of the arbitrariness of the language but are somewhat tortured (折磨) by its conventionality.8-12 important distinctions in linguistics8.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studiedprescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.9.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language is successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.ngue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.petence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.12.Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful viafinal resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.13.Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics14.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modernlinguistics?Illustrate with your own understanding.As we all know, linguistic is concerned with observing facts about language, setting up hypotheses, testing their validity and accepting or rejecting them accordingly. To avoid biases of the kinds mentioned above, modern linguists differ from traditional grammarians in adopting empirical rather than speculative or intuitive approaches in their study. Here are some differences I can find according the text books and my understanding.The first difference: modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is linguists try to make statements which are testable, and take language as it is rather than say how it should be.The second difference: modern linguistics regards spoken rather than written language as primary. Traditional grammar tends to emphasize the importance of written language and the writings.The third difference: modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, Latin was considered the language that provided a universal grammar for all languages.Here is a form I found from the internet and it can show the differences betweenAt last, we should know when criticizing traditional grammar for being unscientific, modern linguistics do not deny altogether the contributions of traditional grammar to the development of modern linguistics. A balance view on traditional grammar is needed in order to track down the continuity of Western linguistic theories from the earliest times to the present day.15.Illustrate the difference between langue and parole with examples you canfind.F. De Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract while parole is concrete. In fact, langue is not spoken by any individual; parole is always a really happening event. Langue is systematic; on the contrary, parole is a pile of complicated speech. Langue exists in our brain, not the words we say. Parole is the words we human beings use to communicate with each other. In a word, langue is the totality of a language or the abstract language system shared by all the members of a speech of a speech community, while parole is the realization of langue in actual use, that is, the concrete act of speaking at a particular time and in a specific situation.Example1: when we Chinese says “do you have dinner?” to an American. The sentence uttered by the Chinese is parole, and how the American understands the sentence is langue.Example2: when Jack said I love you to Rose in the street, the sentences itself is the parole. And how Rose understands this sentence is all about the langue.To sum up, langue is our potential ability to speak while parole is the actual use of language in concrete situation. Langue is social, but parole is individual.End of Chapter 1。
语言学Chapter 1
Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言A tool for communication交流的工具An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language?什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitions一.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotation from shakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included ina good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features. What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness----arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
英语语言学第一章
functionalism & formalism
• functionalism:
study the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.
• formalism:
study the abstract forms of language and their internal relations
made by Saussure in the early 20th century
competence & performance
competence underlying knowledge about the system of rules
performance the actual use of language in concrete situations
Message—Poetic
the addresser uses language for the sole purposes of displaying the beauty of language itself
Contact—Phatic communion
the addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee
2. One of the main features of our human languages is arbitrariness. Can you briefly explain what this feature refer to? Support your argument with examples.
语言学第一章
语言学第一章Chapter 1 Invitation to linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageJacobson——language has six functions:1. Referential指称功能: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative意动功能: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic寒暄功能: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual元语功能: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday ——that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to thehearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spokenand written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Hu Zhuanglin——language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, suc h as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” t o talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealtsolely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances (and in language acquisition for example).1.8.2 Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties1, the characteristics of their functions2, and the characteristics of their speakers3. (123相互作用构成一个speech community 语言社团)1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the history and structure of formerly unwritten language, the emergence of language and the divergence of languages.1.8.4 Computational linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive描写vs. Prescriptive规定A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses the facts observed.It is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the “correct” use of language.1.9.2 Synchronic共时vs. Diachronic历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.The description of a language as it changes through the time is a diachronic study.The distinction between synchronic and dischronic studies is only theoretically clear.原因：①Languages are in a constant state of changing.②The language of any speech community is never uniform.③When a language changes, one set o f features are not suddenly replaced by another set of features.1.9.3 Langue 语言& parole言语Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.区别：①Langue is abstract but parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.②Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; parole is alwaysa naturally occurring event.③Langue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concretesituations is called performance.Competence is the ideal language user`s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.。
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。
Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。
The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。
A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
语言学第一章重点
Degree paper
TEM-8
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱMA
Further research
The Goals for this Course
1. To get a scientific view on language 2. To understand some basic theories on linguistics 3. To understand the applications of the linguistic theories. 4. To prepare for the future research work.
• The link between signifier and signified is arbitrary. （书 in Chinese, book in English, livre in French, 本 【hon】in Japanese, check in Korean.）
• It is the essential, fundamental feature.(first principle as called by Saussure) • Language is not absolutely arbitrary.
Cultural transmission: Language is not biologically or genetically. A language is taught and learned within a particular cultural background.
Functions of language
Performative function
• 行事功能
• It means that people speak to “do things” or to perform actions. • The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc…，are all such performatives.
语言学教程课后习题与答案第一章
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication . to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations . religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units . words) and meaningless segments . sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the langu age system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeicANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaningANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell” If not, why Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. Whenthe two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality Can you explain by drawing a simple graph6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human languageANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simpleANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest” Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate amongthemselves and with human beingsANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasionSome of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗家里都好吧这是去哪里啊最近都挺好的ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok”, “Do you need to see a doctor”, “Do you need some water”, “Do you need a handkerchief”, “Do you have a cold” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions When do we use them most often ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to(B) Whom did you speak toYou should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only makea more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them How do you like the concept “communicative competence”ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate themThe chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of themANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of languageThe proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard . ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’” instead of “what are you doing” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titlesEnglish Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
语言学第一章笔记和习题
Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。
The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentMonthly examExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。
胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。
Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLanguage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.The pooh-pooh theoryLanguage arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.To sum up:The divine-origin theory: language is a gift of god to mankind.The invention theory: imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.The evolutionary theory: the result of physical and psychological development.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intendedmeaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words. Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Productivity/Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‗new‘. In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cannot create a ‗new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.g. human vocal tractFunctions of language (3+6+7+3)1. Three main functionsthe descriptive function: the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.the expressive function: it supplies information about the user‘s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. the social function：also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people2. The Russian-born structural linguists Roman Jakobson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function. That is, in conjunction of the six primary factors of any speech event, he established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication in his famous article: Linguistics and PoeticsAddresser—Emotive (intonation showing anger)Addressee—Conative (imperatives and vocatives)Context—Referential (conveys a message or information)Message—Poetic (indulge in language for its own sake)Contact—Phatic communion (to establish communion with others)Code—Metalinguistic (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)3. In the early 1970s the British linguist M.A.K. Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions, namely, instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, and imaginative. This system contains three macrofunctions—the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual function.three meta-functions proposed by M. A. K. Halliday(1) The ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information. It constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations(2) The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community. It enacts social relationships(3) The textual functionTo form a text. It creates relevance to context.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentrates primarily on what speakers do with language which led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In Halliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the public ation of F. de Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psych ological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。
语言学教程第一章总结
1115101044 李素萍Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted.Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.1.2 What Is Language?Language is the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression.(David Crystal, 1992)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(Ronald Wardhaugh)To give the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication. In short, language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.1.3 Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their sound and meaning. The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level. language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:Primary units …words‟ (meaningful) consist of secondary units …sounds‟ (meaningless).CreativityLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. Information imparted by animals is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages, as birds, bees.Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Language is creative in another sense,that is, its potential to create endless sentences.DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole.In a word, intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe”bow-wow”, the” po oh-pooh” and the” yo-he-yo” theory1.5 Functions of LanguageLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.In conjunction with speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic (to establish communion with others)，metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Informative function(ideational function)信息功能Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud.Language serves for the expression of content and give helps to determine our way of looking at things.Interpersonal Function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society， e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant.It is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation.Performative Function施维功能Language canbe used to do things, to perform action.It is primarily to change the social status of persons and is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an. Emotive Function感情功能It is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.Phatic Communion寒暄功能It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious.Recreational Function娱乐功能The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulnessThe use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.Metalingual Function元语言功能Our language can be used to talk about itself, for example, I can use the word book to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “book” itself.1.6 What Is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the scientific study of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Linguistics is a rich and exciting field.Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.1.7 Main Branches of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax 句法学Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatics语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in particular context. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.1.8 MacrolinguisticsOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structureof formerly unwritten languages.Computational Linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language(also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages).To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of language data, and provides theories and descriptions of language structure and use.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing)is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, andit may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time whereinTHE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis,namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existedlong long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or thatthe speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, giveslanguage new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carriedthrough space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carriedthrough time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby,so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly,oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional(causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encouragerepeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech,different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for??“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptivebecause many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammarswere based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should bedescribed in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy.These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizedlanguage, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to thespeaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always anaturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a massof confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguistought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole,i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make thanthe subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance? According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledgeof the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand anindefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of hisnative language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , thoughsimilar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a propertyof the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociologicalor sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issuespsychologically or psycholinguistically.。
语言学教程Chapter 1_introduction(1)
• Without the awareness of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.
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Discuss with your neighbors ---• What is language? • What do you know when you claim to know a language?
“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.” --Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)
3
Some fundamental views about L
• Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. • Language operates by rules. • All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. • Everyone speaks a dialect. • Language slowly changes.
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Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. --Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)
语言学概论Chapter1WhatisLanguage
语言学概论研究生课程使用教材：语言学入门（英语版）An Introduction to Linguistics by Stuart C. Poole 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press麦克米伦出版社Macmillan Publishers Ltd参考资料：[1] Halliday, M. A. K. (1994[1985]) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd edn. London:Edward Arnold.[2] Labov, William 1966. The Social Stratification of English in York City. Washington, DC:Center for Applied Linguistics.[3] Ladefoged, Peter. 1993. A Course in Phonetics . 3rd ed. Fort Worth,TX: Harcourt Brace.[4] Lakoff, George & M. J. Johnson 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress.[5] Leech, G. 1969. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. Longman.[6] Leech, G. and M. Short. 1981. Style in Fiction. Longman.[7] Radford, Andrew et all. 1999. Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.[8] Roach, Peter. 1991. English Phonetics and Phonology. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press.[9] Yule, George. 1996. The Study of Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.[10] 胡壮麟. 2001.《语言学教程》北京：北京大学出版社.第一章What Is Language?本章的教学目的、要求与内容：掌握语言的意义和定义、语言的功能和结构特征。
语言学 第一章
Theoretical linguistics
2.1ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱPhonetics( 语音学） is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication， e g. how a person make a sound 2.2 Phonology(音位学）studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication, for example, the sound /l/
in leap and feel are two different sounds, but they are interchangeable and make no differences in meaning, we can just leave them as one phoneme(音位） /l/
3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic study（共时 的）---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study（历时 的）---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
2.7 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）is the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society ,for example, dirty words are spoken in different social classes, but the extent of speaking it is varied concerning different area, education background and so on. 2.8 Psycholinguistics（心理语言学） is the study of language that relates to psychology such as how our mind works when we use language, how we memorize and how we process the information we receive in communication.
语言学复习重点 第一章
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics(这一章主要探讨什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及，什么是语言学，语言学的研究范围是什么)1.1 The nature of language---什么是语言？一句话总结，Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (systematic, symbolic, arbitrary, primarily vocal, human specific, used for communication)nguage is systematic 系统性（重点：语言的双重性duality）解释：language is systematic since element in it are arranged to certain rules.(e.g.only certain combination of sounds are possible in English)双重性duality: Each language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.nguage is symbolic 符号性（重点：Icon, Index, Symbol 的区分）解释：there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and objects to which the sounds refer.（这句话丝毫没重点，不过没办法，PPT上这么说，我觉得对符号性的理解应该是people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs 才有逻辑）因为：伟大的现代语言学之父Saussure: linguistics is a subdivision（分支）of semiology(符号学), dealing with language as a special means of human communication. （语言学是符号学的分支，是研究语言作为以一种特殊交流方法的学科。
语言学chapter 1
教案（首页）教案填写说明：①教材和主要参考资料要求表明教材或参考文献的名称、作者、出版社和出版时间。
②教学方法、手段指使用直观教具、挂图、板图、多媒体教学及双语教学等方法。
③教学进程内容包括课堂教学内容、教学方法、辅助手段、师生互动、时间分配、板书设计和作业布置等。
④板书设计可在教学进程中直接用横线、浪线等标示出来。
⑤教后感是对本次教学过程中自我感觉成功的地方以及存在的不足和学生反馈的信息情况进行总结。
Teaching Plan课程名称：课程类型：第 1 次课学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 1: language and linguistics: an overview2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.3、Teaching importances: the definition of language, design features of language, functions of languageTeaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguistics4、Teaching Procedure：I.What is language?1.The boy used bad language towards his classmate.2.Mark Twain’language is brief and vivid.3.I could understand the language of law.4.You are supposed to use the English language whenever it is possible.5.The deal and dumb people use a sign language.6.The movement of the cat’s tail is part of his language of anger.What does every “ language ” mean here?1.使用的具体词汇2.个人的语言特色3.行业术语4.某一特定语言5.不使用词句的表达方式6.动物的交际方式Different people have different points of view of the definition of language.In broad terms, linguists agree to define language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.II.Features of language:Bertrand Russell “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”What is in a name? That which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet.----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet.The two sentences show the arbitrariness of languageMany philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man. Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number offeatures of language, which are not found in animal communication system. Every speaker uses language creatively.1.Creativity/ProductivityIt refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel message. The grammatical rules and the words of language are finite, but the sentences are infinite.2.DualityLanguage contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings. If you are given the four English speech sounds [p][l] [i][d] and asked to combine them into sequences that sound like English words, you will find [plid][pild] are permissible, while * [pdli]*[dpli] *[lipd] *[idlp], etc are not.3.ArbitrainessThe relationship between speech sounds are meanings they represent in the languages of the world is, for the most part, an arbitrary one. The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of signifier ( sound image) and signified ( referent).4.Displacement:Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present and future. When we listen to news broadcast, we know what has happened far and wide in the world. What can be spoken is not limited by time and space, while animals can merely communicate about what happens here and now.5.Cultural transmission :Language is not merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation. Children pick up their mother tongue in the process of socialization. Animal communication systems are genetically transmitted. Admittedly, the capacity for language has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person acquires or learns is a cultural fact, not a biological fact. As language is arbitrary and conventional, a child can only acquire his mother tongue through interacting with people around him.6.Interchangeablility:All members of speech community can send and receive messages.7.Reflexivity:Human languages can be used to describe themselves.Metalanguage : The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. III.Functions of languageWhat are the specific functions of language?rmative2.Interpersonal function3.Performative4.Emotive function5.Phatic communion6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionState the specific functions the following sentences perform in communication1. A nice day, isn’t it ?2.The linguistics class is going to have a party tonight.3.I declare you man and wife.4.Damn! I forgot the appointment.5.Flowers is spelt as F-L-O-W-E-R-S.6.(某人过年报时打碎了碗) 岁岁(碎碎)平安1.phatic communionrmative3.performative4. emotive5.metalingual6.performativeTeaching Plan课程名称：课程类型：第 2 次课学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 1: language and linguistics: an overview2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.3、Teaching importance: the definition of language, design features of language, functions of languageTeaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguistics:4、Teaching Procedure：IV. Types of language1.Natural languages and artificial languageNatural language: is one that is the mother tongue of an ethnic community. It is estimated that there are about 4000 natural languages in the world .An official language: Among the world natural languages, if a language is designatedby the government for an official use, it is called an officiallanguage.Lingua franca: When a natural language is used to break the barrier of communicationbetween nations or peoples speaking different languages, it iscalled a lingua franca. A language that is used forcommunication between different groups of people, eachspeaking a different language.Artificial language: languages which are specially invented to facilitate internationalcommunication. Computer language.Esperanto: since then a number of artificial languages have be invented, among which“Esperanto” still exists today. It was created by a Polish oculist,Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof. However, Although Esperanto istaught in some schools and university and some journals arepublished in it, the artificial language is still yet to be acceptedas an international language.2.Genetic classification of languages: Genetic( or genealogical ) classification, oneof the two main ways of classification, is based on the assumption that languages have diversified from a common ancestor. The Indo-European family is one of the largest families. Languages of this family are the ones that first spread throughout Europe and many parts of southern Asia. English belongs to West Germanic division ( See Appendix II for the divisions of Indo-European family and the daughter languages)3.The typological classification of languagesPhonological classification: Phonologically, languages can be grouped in terms ofhow many and what kinds of vowels they have, whether they use tones, and so on. Chinese, for example is a tone language, while English is not.Morphological classification: Morphologically, languages can be classified on thebasis of the way words are constructed. Some Europeanlinguists in the 19th century recognized three main types: Analytic (isolating) language: such as Chinese and Vietnamese. There areno inflations or formal changes; grammaticalrelationships are shown through word order.Synthetic(inflectional) language: which Latin Greek and Arabic as clearcases. Grammatical relationships are expressed bychanging the internalAgglutinating languageSyntactical classificationV. Language origin1.The divine sourceThe story in the Bible goes like this, “ And out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air, and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature. That was the name thereof”Hypothesis: in isolation, infants would use the original god-given language.2.The invention theoryThe “Bow-wow” theoryThe “Pooh-pooh” theoryThe“ Yo-he-ho theory”3.The evolution theoryVI.Approaches to linguistics1.Descriptive linguists trys to discover and record all the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and do not seek to impose upon them other rules or norms, of correctness.*Describe and record rules ; what one saysPrescriptive linguistics attempts to prescribe rules or principles for how people ought to use a language. They follow Latin rules in prescribing rules for language use.*Prescribe and lay down rules; what one says.2.Synchronic linguistics is devoted to the description and analysis of a given linguistic status or stage of a particular language.* language at a fixed point in timeDiachronic linguistics is concerned with a study of language from the point of view of its development in the course of time.*language through the course of its history3.Historical comparative linguistics studies language change and language relationships.Comparative linguistics : if a comparative study of similarities and differences among languages is made, it is called comparative linguistics.VII. Branches of linguisticsVIII Some bacis notions about linguisticsPrescriptive 规定性研究vs. Descriptive 描写性研究If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.规定性的语言学研究着重观察，总结语言的“标准”，认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法和标准语音，其目的通常是为了规定人们说话及写作等的标准。
Chapter1语言学名词解释1
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。
Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will.Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare V ocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form。
Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal nguage is human specificDesign features:those features of human language,which are thought to distinguish it from other kinds of animal communication.It includes Arbitrariness;Duality;Productivity (creativity)Interchangeability;Displacement;Specialization;Cultural transmissionArbitary: No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.e.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)mansion (French)房子(Chinese)Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, pho tocopy…Duality (Double articulation)Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)the way meaningless elements of language at one level(sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units(words)at another level.Productivity(creativity):Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.Displacement: Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized activity. We use it in a detached manner. Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his role as the speaker and hearer can be exchanged at ease.Functions of languages:Language is used for communication:Phatic function/communion;Directive function;Informative function;Interrogative function;Performative function ;Evocative function;Expressive function;Metalingual functionPhatic function/communion: language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and hearer. Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather serve this function. For example, the expressions such as How do you do?Directive function:Language is used to get the hearer to do something, such as orders and requests. Most imperative sentences are of this function. For example, the sentence “Close your book and listen to me”Iterrogative function:l anguage is used to ask for information from others. All questions expecting replies serve this function. What’s your idea?,However, rhetorical questions do not have theinterrogative function, such as Shelly’s famous sentence O, Wind, if winter comes, can spring be far behind?.Informative function :Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. Declarative sentences serve this function. For instance, the symbol “Road closed” on a road serve this function.Expressive/emotive function :Language is used to express attitudes, feelings and emotions. Ejaculations serve this function, such as My God! and Good heavens!.Evocative function :language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers. Jokes, advertising, and propaganda serve this function.Performative function :l anguage is used to do things or to perform acts. The judge’s imprisonment sentences, the president’s declaration of war or the Queen’s naming of a ship, etc. Microlinguistics:Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics.Phonology----sound patterns of languages Morphology----the form of words Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Semantics----the meaning of language.When the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use----Pragmatics.Macro-linguistics :Interdisciplinary branches of linguistics,Language can be also studied in relation with something else, resulting in many interdisciplinary branches which overlap with anthropology, communication, foreign language teaching and learning, psychology, or sociology. Here are some of those subfields:Sociolinguistics studies the relations between language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language. It studies such mattes as the linguistic identity of social groups, social attitudes to language, standard and non-standard forms of language, the patterns and needs of national language use, and so on. Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition, comprehension and production of language.Related with psycholinguistics is the study of language processing and language presentation in the brain, which is now known as neurolinguistics or neurological linguistics. It typically studies the disturbances of language comprehension and production caused by the damage of certain areas of the brain.Stylistics is the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. It usually refers to the study of written language, including literary texts, but it also investigates spoken language sometimes. It is concerned with the choices that are available to a writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. Since stylistics is the scientific study of literary style, it can be called the “science of literature”.Discourse analysis, or text linguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used. It deals with how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews, and the various devices used by speakers and writers when they connect single sentences together into a cohesive and coherent whole. The recent developments of discourse analysis have been carried out on classroom discourse analysis, critical discourse analysis, and cognitive discourse putational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer. It includes the analysis of language data, the research on machine-aided translation, electronic production of artificial speech and the automatic recognition of human speech. It has produced programmes for collecting and evaluating large amounts of language data for making frequency word lists, for automatically indexing, and for producing concordances (word lists with contexts)Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. It is sometimes called a paradigm or a school of linguistics. The analysis of the conceptual and experiential basis of linguistic categories is of primary importance within cognitive linguistics: it primarily considers language as a system of categories. Therefore, the main topics that cognitive linguistics is interested in are categories and categorization, conceptual metaphor and metonymy, iconicity, and grammaticalizationApplied linguistics is primarily concerned with the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience. The most well-developed branch of applied linguistics is the learning and teaching of foreign languages and sometimes the term is used as if this were the only field involved.Descriptive ----describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.paradigmatic relations are relations of substitution, that is, linguistic forms (e.g. letters, words and phrases) can be substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence.General speaking, scholars of linguists can be divided into two major camps: one is functionalism, and the other is formalism.Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the form of language in reference to their social function in communication. It considers the individual as a social being and investigates the way which she or he acquires language and uses it in order to communicate with others in her or his social environment. Functionalism tends to explain the forms of language by attributing a determining role of its function. The function is presumed to be communication. It holds that the use of language influences its form. Therefore, linguistics should study the functions of language. Most contemporary linguistics in Europe since the Prague School is functional Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes on the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities. The most outstanding representative of formalism is Noam Chomsky’stransformational generative grammar.Linguistics vs. traditional grammar: First, linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Linguistics describes languages as they are and does not lay down rules of correctness; traditional grammar emphasizes such matters as correctness and aims to prescribe what is right.Second, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Third, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages (Latin patterns and categories, especially its case system and tense divisions of past, present and future. For example, some grammarians stated that English had six cases because Latin had six cases. ), while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.Linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for the others. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that will be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind..。
英语语言学导论
Chapter 1 Introduction介绍1.语言定义What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. This explains why “iblk” is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why “Been he wounded has” is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word “pen” and the thing we write with. Different languages have different words for the same object. Words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.2. 语言特征Design Features of LanguageDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Charles Hockett (American) in 1960 : (5 of 13)①Arbitrariness 任意性: There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.) On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrary, such like onomatopoeic words and some compound words.②Productivity 多产性: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.③Duality 双重性: Language is a system, which consists of two levels. The basic level is a structure of sounds, and the higher level is the units of meaning.④Displacement 移位性: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑤Cultural transmission 文化传承性: Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3.语言功能Function of LanguageThree main functions : the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.①The descriptive function: also referred to differently as the cognitive, or referential, or propositional function, is assumed to be the primary function of language.It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.②The expressive function: also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.③The social function: also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Roman Jakobson (Russian-born) :He identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.①Addresser, Emotive 情感功能The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.②Addressee, Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.③Context, Referential 信息功能The addresser conveys a message of information.④Message, Poetic 诗性功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.⑤Contact, Phatic communication 寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.⑥Code.Metalinguistic 元语言，纯理功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. “Let me tell you what the word ‘linguist’ means.”M.A.K. Halliday (British) in the early 1970s :He explored the functions of child language, and found that as a child grew into an adult the7 functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract system of functions.①Ideational 经验功能: The ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions.②Interpersonal 人际功能: The interpersonal function is to establish or maintain socialrelationships between people.③Textual 语篇功能: The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.4.语言学定义What is LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.)(It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.)5.语言学范围the scope of linguisticsRelatively independent branches within the area of linguistics, and also the core of linguistics:①Phonetics语音学: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication.②Phonology音位学: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.③Morphology形态学: The study of the way in which symbols are arranged and combined to form words.④Syntax 句法学: the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.⑤Semantics语义学: In most general terms language is used to convey meaning. The study of meaning is known as semantics.⑥Pragmatics语用学: Language communication does not occur in a vacuum, it always occurs in a context. The study of meaning in the context of language use is called pragmatics. Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study: sociolinguistics社会语言学psycholinguistics 语言心理学applied linguistics 应用语言学。
语言学内容讲义 Chapter One
Chapter One Invitation to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about linguistics as the science of languageFocal points: design features; functions of languageTeaching difficulties: design features; important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedure：Outline of this chapter:1 Why study language?2 What is language?3 Design features of language3.1 Arbitrariness3.1.1 concept3.1.2 two levels3.1.3 Arbitrariness and convention 3.2 Duality二重性3.2.1 concept3.2.2 two levels3.2.3 advantages3.3 Creativity创造性3.3 .1 concept3.3 .2 two senses3.4 Displacement移位性3.4.1 concept3.4.2 three senses4 Origin of language语言的起源4.1 The bow-wow theory汪汪理论4.1.1 arguments4.1.2 evidence4.1.3 problem4.2 The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论4.2.1 arguments4.2.2 evidence4.2.3 problem4.3 The ―yo-he-ho‖ theory吆嗬吆理论4.3.1 arguments4.3.2 evidence4.3.3 problem5 Functions of language语言的功能5.1 schools5.1.1 the Prague School5.1.2 the London School5.2 Functions of language6 What is linguistics? p147 Main branches of linguistics8 Macrolinguistics9 Some important distinctions in linguistics1 Why study language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be a worthy subject for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to some other fields rather than study it as a subject in and of itself. However, if you pause and think of the following myths about language, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really understand the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.The following are some fundamental views about LANGUAGE, which you may instinctively agree without having thought about the reasons,or you may not agree at the moment. Follow this course and you will find they are discussed in more detail in the ensuing chapters.1）．Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.2）．Language operates by rules.3). All languages have three major components; a sound system, a systemof lexico-grammar and a system of semantics.4)．Everyone speaks a dialect.5)．Language slowly changes.6)．Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.7)．Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals that use them.8)．Writing is derivative of speech.Some people find the subject of language intriguing and useful for many different reasons. Language can be used as a way of finding out more about how the brain works, or how damage to the brain results in certain kind of language disorders, how children learn language, how people learn and teach different languages, what the relationship between meaning and perception is, what the role of language is different cultures, why people use different varieties of language, why there are linguistic differences between different groups, and how scientists make the computer work in a more human-like manner. This course book will serve as a starting point from which you may go on researching in one of the above and other language-related fields.2 What is language?Webster‘s New World Dict ionary offers several most frequently used senses of the word ―language‖, namely,Language is human speech; the ability to communicate by this means; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; the written representation of such a system. (Webster's New World Dictionary)Most widely accepted definition of language is that a language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of speech community communicate , interact and transmit their culture.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called DFESIGN FEATURES. The following are the frequently discussed ones.3.1 Arbitrariness3.1.1 conceptThe widely accepted meaning of this feature, which was discussed by Saussure, first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.For instance, we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / and a pen a / pen /. However there seems to be different levels of ARBITRARINESS.3.1.2 two levels1) Word level: Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.（1）we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / and a pen a / pen /. （2）And we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / in English ,书in Chinese .You may object to this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words that sound like the sounds they describe.e.g. In Chinese, these linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to describe the sound. For example, the dog barks wow wow in English but wangwangwang in Chinese.2) Sentence level: Less arbitrariness at the syntactic level According to systemic-functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.（1）By syntax we refer to the ways that sentences are constructedaccording to the grammar of arrangement. We know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules.(2)And there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings.In other words, syntax(sentence) is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as this kind of order is concerned.Compare the sentence at P5:When we say (a) we refer to the sequence of actions; if we say (b) the readers will take it as meaning the opposite sequence of real happenings—perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled himself into the room. In (c) with the help of the word ―after‖ we can reverse the order of the clauses. Therefore the functionalists hold that the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds by which we distinguish pairs of words like pin and bin, or fish and dish.3.1.3 Arbitrariness and conventionWhat then is the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning? It is a matter of CONVENTION. Here we have to look at the other side of the coin of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality.(1)Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.(2)And conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is the conventionality of a language that is more worth noticing that its arbitrariness.3.2 Duality二重性3.2.1 concept―By DUALITY is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization‖ (Lyons, 1982:20)3.2.2 two levels1）primary level （words）We call sounds here secondary elements as opposed to such primary units as words which convey meaning in them and have distinct and identifiable meaning, which are made up of the secondary level.2)secondary level (sounds)Roughly speaking, the elements of the spoken language are sounds, which do not convey meaning in them. The only function of sounds is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning, such as words.3.2.3advantagesNow we can perceive the advantage of duality, which lies in the great productive power our language, is endowed with. 1)Countless words can be formed out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And 2)the huge number of words can be combined together to form endless number of sentences, 3)which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.3.3 Creativity创造性3.3 .1 conceptBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.3.3 .2 two senses1)dualityThe creativity of language partly originates from its duality which we just discussed in the above section, namely, because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.2) recursive natureLanguage is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for this possibility. For instance, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:Eg:He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…3.4 Displacement移位性3.4.1 conceptDISPLACEMENT means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3.4.2 three senses1) Our language enables us to describe things in the past, now and in the future.2) Our language also enables us to communicate about things that don‘t exist or don‘t yet exist.3) Our language also makes it possible for us to talk and think inabstract terms.4 Origin of language语言的起源4.1 The bow-wow theory汪汪理论4.1.1 arguments1) In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and2) Speech developed from that.4.1.2 evidenceOnomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory.4.1.3 problemBut in our discussion we can find they are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds. This theory lacks supportive evidence.4.2 The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论4.2.1 arguments1) In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.2) And speech developed from that.4.2.2 evidenceAs for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections.4.2.3 problemWhat makes the theory problematic is that there is only limited number of interjections in almost all languages. Besides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, aiyo bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.4.3 The ―yo-he-ho‖ theory吆嗬吆理论4.3.1 arguments1) As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts .2) They gradually developed into chants and then into language.4.3.2 evidenceWe do have prosodic use of rhythms in languages.4.3.3 problemRhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense. The theory is again at most a speculation.5 Functions of language语言的功能5.1 schoolsLinguists talk about the FUNCTIONS of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet people, etc, they summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language like the following:5.1.1 the Prague School1)representative: Jacobson.2)Arguments: 6 functions, based on the key elements of communication,namely: referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), cognitive (to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties), phatic (to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear up intentions, words and meanings).5.1.2 the London School1) representative: Halliday2) arguments: 3 functions. He proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL, INTERPRESONAL and TEXTUAL functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context (Halliday, 1994)5.2 Functions of language5.2.1 Informative信息功能For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language.1) Language is the instrument of thought .2) Language is used to record the facts, which is a perquisite of social development.It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar:1)Halliday notes that ―Language serves for the expression of ‗content‘: that is, o f the speaker‘s experience of the real world, including the innerworld of his own consciousness.2)In serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us.‖ (in Lyons, 1970, p.142-3)5.2.2 Interpersonal function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function,1）by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.2) Language serves to establish and maintain social rules.3) Language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality.4）Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.( Language also serves in the expression of identity)5.2.3 Performative施为功能This concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backboneof pragmatics. (see section 8.1 below)1) The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.2)The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.5.2.4 Emotive function感情功能According to some investigations, though the conveying of some information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication (Nida, 1998:17).1) It is a means of changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.2) It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy According to David Crystal (1992: 17).When we are under stress, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery can relax us; conventional words / phrases, e.g. God, My, Dam it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Ow…can do so ,tooIt is also discussed under the term expressive function:1)The expressive function can often by entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.2)Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group of people who reinforce one another‘s expressive use of language to show their solidarity.(Nida, 1998:21)The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way.5.2.5 Phatic communion交感性谈话The term PHATIC COM MUNION originates from Malinowsky‘s study of the functions of language performed by Trobiand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language,1) We all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintaina comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.2) Broadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects ifthey are to interact comfortably with different people.5.2.6 Recreational function娱乐性功能1) It is performed for the sheer joy of playing on language.If you observe children‘s play, you will fin d the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game: the repetitive rhythms help to control the game, and the children plainly take great delight in it.2) Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own sake. For instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. We are getting very close here to Jacobson‘s poetic function.5.2.7 Metal lingual function元语言功能1) Our language can be used to talk about itself. P 132) This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive.6 What is linguistics?什么是语言p147 Main branches of linguisticsPhonetics the production of speech,Phonology studies the rules governing the structure ,the sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology the internal organization of words, the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation process.Syntax principles of forming and understanding correct English sentencesSemantics How meaning is encoded in a languagePragmatics the study of meaning in context.8 MacrolinguisticsPsycholinguistics the interrelation of language and mind in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisitionSociolinguistics the social function of language and the social characteristics of its users.Anthropological linguistics the history and structure of unwritten languagesComputational linguistics the use of computer to process or produce human language9 Some important distinctions in linguistics 9.1 Prescriptive & descriptive 规定性研究和描述性研究：前者总结语言中的标准，后者着重分析语言中的事实。
语言学简明教程Chapter 1
Functional linguistics England, Halliday
T-G Grammar American, Chomsky
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1.2 What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. system---elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will. arbitrary---there is no intrinsic(logic) connection between a sign and its meaning. vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.
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3. Other Classifications of Linguistics
① ② ③ ④ ⑤
Functional linguistics (功能语言学） Structural linguistics （结构语言学） Chomskyan linguistics （乔姆斯基语言学） Hallidayan linguistics（韩礼德语言学） ……
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Time for Break
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1.3 Properties of language 语言的结构特征 (Design features)
1) 2) 3) 4)
Arbitrariness（任意性） Duality（双重性） Productivity （创造性） Cultural transmission （文化传递性）
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Introduction
Contents
1.1 What is linguistics
1.2 What is language
1.1 What is Linguistics
1.1.1 Definition
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1) language cf. a language; languages
2) study c.f. learn 3) scientific: data + hypothesis + theory
1.1.2 The scope of linguistics
1. General/specific linguistics 2. Branches 音：phonetics, phonology 形：morphology, syntax 义：semantics, pragmatics 用：applied linguistics : (second) language acquisition,
1.2 What is language
1.2.1 Definitions of language
1. Structural approach
Language is a set of rules.
Chess? 2. Functional approach
Language is a tool for human communication.
26 words = 1680 sentences
sound
sound sequence (word) (sequence) 500,000 ？
48
4. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things a. which are real or imagined matters; e.g. Everybody will have a free lunch today.
If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.
7) Evocative（唤情）: to create feelings in the hearer e.g. Comrades, ...!
Supplementary reading
1. M. A. K. Halliday (Systemic functional grammar) ideational（概念）
1. Duality Language is a system consisting of two levels: sounds and meaning.
meaning
sound
2. Arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
4. Generative grammar：生成语法 1) Chomsky 2) competence and performance
Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
- How are you today? - Very bad. My son is beaten, my wife is missing and I lose my job.
- Have you eaten? - Not yet. I’d like to go with you.
6) Expressive（表情）: to reveal one’s feelings e.g. I love you ,motherland.
This/the girl/woman/lady/female is probably/certainly/surely/I think/I believe/ we think/we believe a gorgeous/lovely/pretty/beautiful/cute/ravishing one/girl/woman/lady/female
交：sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics
1.1.3 Development of linguistics
1) traditional grammar
2) linguistics: historical linguistics structural linguistics generative grammar systemic functional grammar
b. which are present or not (in time or place) e.g. Long, long ago … 在那遥远的地方，有个好姑娘 ·· ·
5. Cultural transmission 1) Human capacity for language has a genetic basis.
1.2.3 Functions of language
1) Phatic（寒暄）: to maintain social contact e.g. greetings farewells comments on weather
2) Directive（指令）:to get the hearer do sth. e.g. Hands up!
a. Only human beings can learn language. No animal can master language. b. If damaged on the head, one can’t speak or understand language.
2) Language is passed on by teaching and learning, rather by instinct.
The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
3. Structural linguistics：结构主义语言学 1) Saussure 2) langue vs. parole （语言） （言语）
handkerchief?
3. Comprehensive approach
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
1.2.2 Design features
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any other system of communication.
3) erformative（行为）: help the speaker do things e.g. I promise ...
4) Informative（信息）: to tell the information e.g. I will tell you a secret ....
5) Interrogative（问讯）: to ask for the information e.g. Do you know her secret?
2. Historical linguistics：历史语言学
diachronic vs. synchronic （历时） （共时）
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study, or historical study.
a. Language is arbitrary in nature. book – 书 women – 我们
b. Certain words are motivated（理据）. Onomatopoeia: bang；布谷
3. Productivity Language users can produce new sentences or understand them without any difficulty.
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.
1.1.4 Distinction in linguistics
1. Traditional grammar：传统语法 1) written vs. spoken language 2) prescriptive vs. descriptive (规定性) （描写性）