跨文化管理考试重点

跨文化管理Chapter 1.一、文化的概念：文化是已经获取的知识，利用这种知识，人类可以解释各种经验和产生的社会行为。

这些知识构成了人们的价值观决定了人们的态度，影响了人们的各种行为。

Culture defined:Acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior. This knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and influences behavior.二、文化的特征1.文化是学习形成的，而不是通过遗传而天生具有的，是后天习惯、学而知之的。

2.文化是可以分享的，是一个群体可共享的东西。

3.文化是代代相传的，文化是群体在适应内外环境的过程中所形成的一种生活方式，具有很强的历史继承性。

4.文化具有象征性，是一种架构，包括各种内隐或外显的行为模式，通过符号系统习得或传递，人与人之间通过传递象征符和意义来相互作用相互影响。

5.文化是模式化的，有结构的，它可以分为各个方面，其中最为中演的，是价值和观念和行为模式。

6.文化是适应性的，是动态的，可变的，虽然这一变化过程比较缓慢、甚至不可见。

Characteristics of Culture:1.Learned. Culture is not inherited or biologically based ;it is acquired by learning andexperience.2.Shared. People as members of a group , organization or society share culture; it is not specificto single individuals.3.Transgenerational. Culture is cumulative, passed down from one generation to the next..4.Symbolic. Culture is based on the human capacity to symbolize or use one thing to representanother5.Patterned. Culture has structure and is integrated; a change in one part will bring changesin another.6.Adaptive. Culture is based on the human capacity to change or adapt, as opposed to the moregenetically driven adaptive process of animals.三、文化的模型1.霍夫斯坦模型<Hofstede’s Culture Dimensions >：<1>.权力距离是民族文化的第一个维度Power distance: Less powerful members accept that power is distributed unequally.权力距离：<组织或机构中>权力较少的成员接受权力不平等分配的程度➢High power distance countries: people blinded obey superiors; centralized, tall structures<e.g., Mexico, South Korea, India >高权力距离的国家，员工盲目遵从上司的指令；集权式，拥有金字塔式的结构。

➢Low distance countries: flatter， decentralized structure, smaller ratio of supervisor to employee <e.g., Austria, Finland, Ireland>低权力距离的国家：通常是分权式的，拥有更扁平化的结构，只拥有少部分的监督人员。

在决策方式上：权力距离大的国家倾向于用自上而下的决策方式，优势即使高喊民主，也是形式为多。

权力距离小的国家则倾向于自下而上的决策方式，善于吸纳底层的一见，而作为底层的人也敢于说出自己所想。

<2>.不确定性避免是民族文化的第二维度Uncertainty Avoidance: people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these.不确定性规避：人们受到模糊不清的情景威胁的程度以及为规避这些威胁而形成的信念和机制。

➢High uncertainty avoidance countries: high need for security, strong belief in experts and their knowledge; structure organizational activities, more written rules, less managerial risk taking <e.g., Germany, Japan, Spain>不确定性规避程度较高的国家：有较高程度的安全需求，相信专家个知识，拥有大量的组织活动的结构，较多的成文规则，较少的敢于冒险的管理者。

➢Low uncertainty avoidance countries: people more willing to accept risks of the unknown, less structure organizational activities, fewer written rules, more managerial risk taking, higher employee turnover, more ambitious employees <e.g., Denmark and Great Britain> 不确定性规避程度较低的国家：员工更愿意接受不确定的风险，组织活动的结构较少，成文规则较少，敢于冒风险的管理者较多，员工流动率较高，富有野心的员工较多。

<3>.个人主义—集体主义是民族文化的第三个维度Individualism: People look after selves ad immediate family only.个人主义：人们只考虑自己和家庭的趋向。

➢High individualism countries: wealthier, protestant work ethic, greater individual initiative, promotions based on market value<e.g., U.S., Canada, Sweden >高个人主义的国家：比较富裕的国家，赞同信教的伦理道德，强国个人创新。

按市场价值进行提升。

➢High collectivism countries: poorer, less support of Protestant work ethic, less individual initiative, promotions based on seniority<e.g., Indonesia, Pakistan>高集体主义的国家：比较贫穷的国家，不太赞同新教的伦理道德，个人创新也比较差，且依据年资来进行提升。

<4>.男性度是民族文化的第四个维度Masculinity: dominant social values are success, money, and things男性度<刚毅性>：社会主导价值观是成功、金钱等类似东西时的情景。

➢High masculine countries: stress earnings, recognition, advancement, challenge, wealth;high job stress<e.g., Germanic countries>高男性度的国家：注重收入、认可、提升、挑战、财富、高工作压力<如德语国家> ➢High feminine countries: emphasize caring for ….四、汤皮诺的文化维度<1> Universalism vs. Particularism普遍性和特殊性Universalism: ideas/practices can be applied everywhere普遍性：理论和实践在任何地方都适用。

·High universalism countries: formal rules, close adhere to business contracts (e.g., Canada, U.S., Netherlands, Hong Kong)高普遍性国家：正式的规则，严格遵守商业合同（例如：加拿大，美国，荷兰，香港）·Particularism: circumstances dictate how ideas/practices apply; high particularism countries often modify contracts (e.g., China, South Korea)特殊性：受环境制约，应用理论与实践；高特殊性国家经常修改合同（例如：中国，韩国）<2.> Individualism vs. Communitarianism个人主义和团体主义Individualism: people as individuals个人主义：人们把他们自己看做个体·Countries with high individualism: stress personal and individual matters; assume great personalresponsibility (e.g., Canada, Thailand, U.S., Japan)高度个人主义国家：强调个人因素;承担较多的个人责任（例如：加拿大，泰国，美国，日本）·Communitarianism: people regard selves as part of group团体主义：人们把他们自己看做是群体中的一员。