欧洲文化入门要点
欧洲文化入门复习资料
一．细节知识点（一）Greek ＆Roman1.drama●Aeschylus埃斯基洛斯：Prometheus Bound被束缚的普罗米修斯,Persians波斯人，Agamennon●Sophcles索发克里斯：（tragic art）Oedipus the king, Electra，Antigone●Euripides欧里庇得斯：“problem plays”，Andromache，Medea，Trojan Women●Aristophanes阿里斯多芬尼斯：Frogs，Clouds，Wasps，Birds2.Historian●H erodotus：*“father of history”* from Greek to Persians *full ofanecdotes and dialogues ,interesting●T hucydides: *younger than Herodotus *Athens to Sparta and Athensto Syracuse希拉库萨 *style is imagination and power *the greatesthistorian that ever lived3.philosophy and science●P ythagoras毕达哥拉斯： *bold thinker *believe everything isnumbers* scientific mathematics----point，line ，magnitude震级，surface，body，first proportion●H eracleitus赫拉克里克：*fire is the primary element of universe*sayings: all is flux，nothing stationary/you cannot step twice intothe same river/fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you/ the sunis new every day.*believe mingling of opposites ,opposites produce harmony(二) Bibletranslation●Latin version：383-405AD by St .Jerome●English version：1382 John Wycliff(三)Middle ages/ Medieval1. AD 476 Roman power was gone2. after 1054 Church was divided into Roman Catholic and Eastern OrthodoxChurch3.The Crusades: 1096－1291 last for about 200 years4.learning：● Charlemagne查理曼大帝：*western and central Europe*father of Europe .Emperor of Romans in 800*Carolingian Renaissance加洛林*encourage Christian religion and ancient learning by setting monasteryschools● Alfred the Great阿尔弗雷德大帝：*ruler of Anglo Saxon of Wessex*Encourage teacher and scholars , Wessex center of learning*Anglo Saxon chronicles英国编年史● St .Thomas Aquinas*Italian philosopher ,scholasticism经院哲学*Summa Contra Centiles , Summa Theologiae 《神学大全》*building a society of “God’s rule””God’s will”，Pope is“Christ’splenipotentiary基督的全权代表” above secular rulers● Roger Bacon罗杰培根*a British monk ,one of the earliest advocates of experimental scientificresearch and observation*works :Opus maius ,encyclopedia of the sciences of his time5．Literature●Beowulf :an Anglo Saxon epic● Song of Roland ，La Chanson de Gestes: French● Dante：the divine of comedy神曲 greatest poet of Italy●Geoffrey Chaucer 乔叟：English poet ：canterbury tales坎特伯雷故事集，（first short story teller, first modern poet in English literature ）（四）Renaissance1.started in Florence and Venice， Italy2.heart of Renaissance philosophy is greatness of man ，humanism3.masterpieces :● Giovanni Boccaccio薄伽丘：Decameron十日谈（the greatest achievementof prose fiction 散文小说in the middle ages）● Francesco Petrarch彼德拉克：*discover Cicero’s Oration Oro Arochia,a Roman defense of poetry*Works： Canzoniers（lyrical）, Africa，Metrical Epistles，On Contempt forthe Worldly Life，On Solitude，Ecologues， The Letters●Giotto乔托：*forerunner of Renaissance，led the way to humanism，realistic depiction of space*works: Flight into Egypt ,Betrayal of Juda s●Giorgione乔尔乔捏：Tempesta , Sleeping Venus（use of colour schemes to unify picture and most revolutionaryresult in this sphere)●Leonardo da Vinci:*painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor,anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer.*12 paintings 5000 books ,Renaissance man in the true sense of word.*Last Supper(most famous religious pictures), Mona Lisa(most portrait)●Michelangelo Buonarroti:* an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer* David ，Sistine Chapel ，Dying Slave ,Moses●Raphael：Madonna（Virgin Mary）各种圣母画，school of Athens● Rabelais拉伯雷： French ，Gargantua and Pantagruel《巨人传》● Pleiade 七星诗社：French ,leader is Pirre de Ronsard(Sonnet PourHelene) ，发扬保卫法兰西语言●Cervantes塞万提斯：Spanish，Don Quixote 1062● Erasmus：Dutch， Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, teacher, andtheologian，Greek edition of New Testament ,Praise of Folly《愚人颂》●Durer : German ,follower of Martin Lutherthe four horsemen of apocalypse 天启四骑士knight ，death and the devil●Thomas more：英国人，Utopia乌托邦，conclusion●Shakespeare：英国人Twelfth night ，As you like it ，Hamlet，Othello，King Lear ，Macbeth，Antony and Cleopatra，Sonnets, King Henry 5，6二 .名词解释1.RenaissanceRenaissance is a period of western civilization between 14-17th century.The word Renaissance means revival .it also means the revival of interestin ancient Greek and Roman culture，which started in Florence andVenice ，Italy . the heart of~is humanism.2 . Reformation~ was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement ,which began with Martin Luther’s 95 theses in 1517. TheReformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church.3．Middle ages ：~is also called Medieval ,”the year of faith”* or the thousand-year period following the fall of the western roman empire in the 5th century .it camebetween ancient times and modern times .During this period Germanickingdom grew into nations such as England ,French ,Spain, Italy, Germany.4 . Feudalism~is a system of holding land in exchange for military service .the word~was derived from the Latin “feudum” , a grant of land.5 Catholic~Means” universal”. ~church was a highly centralized and disciplinedinternational religious organization .in the middle ages ,almost everyEuropeans belonged to it.6. old testament~is one of the two parts of the Bible ,which is about the God and the laws of God. Testament means agreement—the agreement between God and man.7. Pentateuch 摩西五书The oldest first five parts of the Bible including Genesis ,Exodus，Leviticus, Numbers， Deuteronomy8. doric ：one of Greek architecture styles，~is also called masculine style .it’s sturdy 坚定的，powerful，severelooking ，showing sense of proportions andnumbers.Ionic：feminine style graceful and elegant，showing wealth of ornament装饰三.问答1. What happened in Western Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire?After the Roman Empire lost its predominance优势, a great many Germanic Kingdoms began to grow into the nations know as England, France, Italy, andGermany in its place. These nations of Western Europe were in the scene of frequent wars and invasions. The political unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and disease killed many lives and village fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste. There was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. Christianity was almost the all and the one of Medieval lives in western Europe and took lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds years.2. What were the cultural characteristics of the period from 500 to 1000? Above all, the cultural characters of this period were the heritage and achievement of Roman culture and the emergence of Hebrew and Gothic culture.3.What made Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance?Because of its geographical position, foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with other cultures and gave rise to urban economy and helped Italy accumulate wealth which was an essential factor for the flowering of art and literature.For two centuries beginning from the late 15th century, Florence was the golden city which gave birth to a whole generation of poets, scholars, artists and sculptors. There was in Florence a revival of interest in classical learning and rising of humanist ideas.And to spread the new ideas, libraries and academies were founded.In the 15th century printing was invented and helped to spread humanist ideas.4. How did Italian Renaissance art and architecture break away from medi eval traditions?The Italian Renaissance art and architecture radically broke away from the medieval methods of representing the visible world. Compared with the latter, the former has t he following distinct features:⑴Art broke away from the domination of church and artist who used to be craftsmen commissioned by the church became a separate strata doing noble and creati ve work⑵Themes of painting and architecture changed from purely celestial realm focusingon the stories of the Bible, of God and Mary to an appreciation of all aspects of n ature and man;⑶The artists studied the ruins of Roman and Greek temples and put many of the principles of ancient civilization into their works;⑷Artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomy and perspective.。
欧洲文化入门重要信息点
Introduction (介绍)1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.Divison OneGreek Culture and Roman Culture1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour.3、Ancient Greece’s epics was created by Homer.4、The Homer’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.5、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.6、Three masters in tragedy三大悲剧大师①AeschylusPrometheus Bound—→Shelly Prometheus Unbound②Sophocles(之首)Oedipus the King—→ Freud’s“the Oedipus complex” (恋母情结) —→ David Herbert Lawrence’s Sons and lovers③EuripidesA．Trojan W omenB．He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)C．Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides human”(一个纯粹的人)D．Realis m can be traced back to the Ancient Greece. To be specific, Euripides.7、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes.Aristophanes writes about nature.Swift says of him “As for comic Aristophanes, The dog too witty and too profane is.”8、History (Historical writing)“Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war(between Greeks and Persians)This war is called Peleponicion wars.“The greatest historian that ever lived.” —→ Thucydides —→ war (Sparta, Athens and Syracuse)9、① Euclid’s Elements解析几何It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.② ArchimedesHis work not only in geometry几何学,but also in arithmetic算术, machanics机械, and hydrostatics.流体静力学Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.（Archimedes）10、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (罗马征服希腊的标志)From 146 B.C., Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.Greek that of the eastern half.Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.11、The dividing range in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.12、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.13、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato’s republic.14、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions(罗马军团)15、In the Roman history, there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was known as Pax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)16、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana17、The Roman Law protected the rights of plebeians (平民).18、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.19、After 395,the empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and West.20、Cicero西赛罗his legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的an enormous influence(巨大影响) on the development of European prose.21、Virgil: Aeneid 阿尼德22、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.The world’s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所23、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式24、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式25. Many of Plato’s ideas we re later absorbed into Christian thought.How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?(1)、Three founders1、Pythagoras① All things were numbers.② Scientific mathematics.③ Theory of proportion.比例的理论2、Heracleitue① Fire is the primary elements of the universe.火是万物之源② The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一3、Democritus① the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者② materialis m.唯物主义(2)、Three thinkers1、Socrates① He hadn’t works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.② The dialectical method was established by Socrates.2、Plato①The Academy is the first school in the world, it was established by Plato.②He has four works. Dialogues, Apology, Symposium and Republic.3、Aristotle①The L yceum is the second school in the world, it was established by Aristotle.②Aristotle is a humanist.(2)、Five contending schools1、The Sophists诡辩派①Under the leadership of Protagoras.②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论③His doctrine is “man is the measure of all things”.2、The Cynics犬儒派①Under the leadership of Diogenes.②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.③He proclaimed his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.3、The Sceptics置疑学派①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable, and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.4、The Epicureans享乐派①Under the leadership of Epicurus.②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual enjoyment.Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.5、The Stoics斯多哥派①Under the leadership of Zeno.②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.Develop ed into Stoics’ duty.He was also a materialist.What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)？1、For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact.This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.2、For another, he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world3、Aristotle thought happiness was men’s aim in life，but not happiness in the vulgar sense, but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation.What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development?There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere.Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.1、Spirit of innovation创新精神The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.3、Lasting effect持续的影响①Countless writers have quoted, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies ofAeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect.②In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn.③In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.Division TwoThe Bible and Christianity1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture: Judais m and Christianity.3、The Jewish tradition, which gave birth to Christianity. (犹太教是基督教的前身)Both originated in Palestine, which was known as Canaan.4、The ancestors of the Jews — the Hebrews.5、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.6、The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.7、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.8、The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.9、The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between G od and Man.10、The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch.摩西五经11、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.12、Noah’s Ark was record ed in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.13、The content of historical Books: 1200B.C. 586 B.C.Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C., till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.14、The History Books① The development of system of landed nobles.② The development of monarchy. 君主专制③ Establishment of the two Kingdoms. 两大王国的初步形成④ The settlement in the highlands⑤ Age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon.15、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.16、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew (马塞福音书)17、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin V ulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.What difference between Christianity and the other religions?Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.(加尔文主义也有这样的观点)What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.2、Miltion’s Paradise Lost , Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden.Division ThreeThe Middle Ages1、the Middle agesIn European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it was the transitional period(过渡时期) between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century.2、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭3、Feudalis m in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalis m” was derived from the Latin “feudum”,a grant of land.4、5、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.6、The word “catholic” meant “universal”.(广泛的，无处不在的)7、St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)8、Augustine —→ “Confession” and “The City of God”9、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)10、Crusades went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades.11、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.12、Carolingian RenaissanceCarolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.13、National Epics(民族史诗运动)The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancientliterature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.14、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点：① power of observation (观察)② piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③ sense of humour ④ warm humanity (温暖的人性)15、Gothic① The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.② It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.③ The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式）16、The Canterbury Tales:① The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.② Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.③ Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.17 In the middle ages, what cultures began to merge？Classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合). It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？1、During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.2、The Christian church continued to gain widespread power and influence.3、In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years.4、It shaped people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages?1、feudalis m in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalis m” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners, the people of s mall farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners, but they still had freedom, they were called freemen.3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners, and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.4、In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owne rs of the fiefs was call vassals.5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散) government.6、As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture?(What is the great significance of the Crusades?)1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalis m, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制)3、Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire for wealth or p ower began to overshadow their religious ideals.4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century, universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字), algebra (代数), and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.5、As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments.How did literature develop in the middle ages?1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national charact eristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy: (但丁与神曲)① His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.② The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.③ Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales: (乔叟与坎特布雷集)① The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.②Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer’s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵) the French and Italian styles.③Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.Division FourRenaissance and Reformation1、RenaissanceGenerally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance” means revival (复兴), specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence (从实质上讲), was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts (试图) to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级), to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman churchauthorities.(权利威信)Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.Renaissance started in Florence and V enice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture (雕塑) and architecture. 最早开始于painting2、In Renaissance literature of Italy, Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.3、Intellectuals became closely tied up with the rising bourgeoisie.(人文主义兴起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)4、At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.(以人为本—人文主义的核心)5、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.6、Michelangelo—— David—— Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible, the Genesis )—— Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶)—— Moses (摩西)7、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)He painted his Madonnas in different postures against different backgrounds.8、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派). Plato and Aristotle engaged in argument.9、Titian—— The V enus of Urbino (断臂的维纳斯)Man with the Glove (带手套的人) ☆10、John Wyclif —— translation of the Bible into English for the first time.11、Martin Luther —— translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.12、The reformation get its victory first in England.13、ReformationThe Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经14、Calvinis mCalvinis m was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。
“欧洲文化入门”课程学习指南
“欧洲文化入门”课程学习指南一、课程基础：欧洲文化入门是全校外语类选修课程，本课程面向全校文理学生开设，是主要以提高学生的文化素养为主的课程。
二、适应对象：大学英语完成三级课程学习的本科学生。
三、教学目的：本课程教学目标为：了解欧洲文化的最基本知识，开阔视野，培养兴趣，促进英语学习。
本课程力图在介绍文化知识的同时，激发学生学习英语的兴趣，从而提高语言能力，以达到充分体现素质教育，全面提高学生的跨文化交际能力，培养学生的综合文化素质，扩展国际视野。
四、内容提要：本课程的主要内容包括：希腊罗马文化、基督教及其《圣经》、中世纪、文艺复兴和宗教改革、十七世纪、启蒙运动、浪漫主义、马克思主义与达尔文学说、现实主义、现代主义及其它。
由于学时所限，本学期本门课只集中讲述前五个大题的内容。
若学生对本门课感兴趣，想继续学习后五个大题的内容可选修大外应用提高阶段的选修课—欧洲文化入门（下）。
本课程以欧洲文化为语境，培养学生人文知识的底蕴，使学生对西方文化最基本的方面有一定的认识和了解，从而激发语言学习的兴趣、带动英语学习。
五、自主学习授课模式：基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式是为了帮助学生达到大学英语应用提高阶段教学要求所设计的一种新型英语教学模式。
强调个性化教学与自主学习，以及教师可通过课堂进行辅导，传授知识和技能的特点，使学生可在教师的指导下，根据自己的特点、水平、时间，选择合适的学习内容，借助计算机的帮助，迅速提高自己的英语综合实用能力，达到最佳学习效果。
1、教学模式的构成图一、基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式2、基于计算机的英语学习过程大学外语应用提高教学阶段各门课程采用“以传统教学模式为主，以网络自主学习模式为辅”的教学模式。
如下图：图二、基于计算机的英语学习过程六、自主学习学习方法：依据建构主义学习理论，在教学中采用自主学习、讨论学习等教学方法，采用学生为主体进行自主学习和训练及教师为主导进行讲授相结合的教学方法。
《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记(全十章)
自考英语《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记(全十章)1、There are many elements constituting(组成) European Culture.2、There are two major elements：Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.3、The richness(丰富性) of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.第一章1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on(依赖) an immense(无限的)amount of slave labour.3、Olympus mount，776 BC first celebration, Revived in 1896(当代奥运会)4、Ancient Greece(古希腊)’s epics was created by Homer.5、They are about events of Homer’s own time. (错)(They are not about events of Homer’s own time，probably in the period 1200-1100 B.C.)6、The Homer’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.7、Agamemnon，Hector，Achilles are in Iliad.8、Odysseus and Penelope are in Odyssey.9、Odyssey(对其作品产生影响)—→James Joyoe‘s Ulysses(描述一天的生活)。
深入了解欧洲文化的十个要点
深入了解欧洲文化的十个要点欧洲作为一个拥有悠久历史和独特文化的大陆，吸引着无数人的眼球。
要真正理解和欣赏欧洲文化，我们需要对其深入了解。
本文将介绍深入了解欧洲文化的十个要点，帮助读者更好地把握欧洲的独特魅力。
1. 多样性和融合：欧洲是一个多民族、多文化的大陆。
不同国家和地区拥有自己独特的语言、风俗和传统。
然而，欧洲文化也强调融合和共同价值观。
例如，欧洲联盟的形成就是为了加强欧洲国家的团结和合作。
2. 历史遗产：欧洲是历史上许多伟大帝国和文明的发源地。
从古希腊罗马文明到中世纪君主制，欧洲的历史遗迹无处不在。
游览欧洲的古迹和博物馆，能够感受到沉浸在历史中的激动和敬畏。
3. 艺术与文学：欧洲文化以其卓越的艺术和文学成就而闻名。
莎士比亚、达·芬奇、莫扎特等众多欧洲艺术家和作家的作品至今仍然影响着世界。
欧洲也是许多重要艺术运动的发源地，如文艺复兴和印象派。
4. 音乐和舞蹈：欧洲有丰富多样的音乐和舞蹈传统。
古典音乐在欧洲尤其盛行，德国的贝多芬和奥地利的莫扎特等作曲家的音乐作品被奉为经典。
此外，欧洲也是许多著名芭蕾舞团和舞蹈学院的发源地。
5. 美食与饮食文化：欧洲各国拥有丰富的美食文化，每个国家都有其独特的传统菜肴和烹饪方式。
法国的蜗牛、意大利的比萨和西班牙的火腿都成为了国际上著名的美食代表。
欧洲餐桌上的用餐仪式和礼仪也是一种独特的文化体现。
6. 时尚与设计：欧洲在时尚和设计领域具有重要影响力。
伦敦、米兰和巴黎等城市是世界时尚之都，吸引着无数时尚爱好者和设计师。
欧洲的时尚产业和设计风格独特而多样，带来了许多令人眼花缭乱的创意。
7. 社交和礼仪：欧洲人注重社交礼仪，尤其是在商务和正式场合。
例如，英国人的绅士风度和法国人的细致考究都是欧洲社交礼仪的体现。
了解欧洲社交规则和礼仪可以帮助在欧洲社交场合中更好地融入和交流。
8. 节日和庆典：欧洲的各个国家和地区都有丰富多样的节日和庆典。
例如，德国的啤酒节、意大利的威尼斯狂欢节和西班牙的斗牛节等，都吸引着全球的游客。
欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结
欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结1.希腊罗马Homer Author of epics Sappho Lyric poet三大悲剧家：Aeschylus Tragic dramatist Sophocles Tragic dramatist Euripides Tragic dramatist喜剧家：Aristophanes Comedy writer历史学家：Herodotus wrote about wars between Greeks and Persians Father of history Thucydides wrote about wars between Athens and Sparta and Athens and Syracuse the greatest historian that have ever lived哲学和科学：Pythagoras All things were numbers founder of scientific mathematics Heracleitue Fire is the primary element Democritus Materialist，one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory Socrates Dissect of oneself，virtue was high worth of life，dialectical method Plato Man have knowledge because of the existence of certain general ideasAristotle Direct observation，theory follow fact，idea and matter together made concrete individual realities Euclid a textbook of geometry Archimedes when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced “Give me a place to stand and I…ll move the World”Others Diogenes （the Cynics）Pyrrhon（the Sceptics）Epicurus （the Epicureans）Zeno（the Stoics）4th century B.C.后半叶希腊在Alexander，king of Macedon的领导下，5th century B.C.达到顶峰，146 B.C.被罗马攻克2.基督教和圣经Jews—以前叫Hebrews，3800B.C.穿过中东沙漠，1300B.C.Moses带领Hebrews离开埃及，开始他们的Exodus，他在Sinai山定了ten commandments in the name of God，40年后Hebrews 定居Pelestine，known as Canaan，Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament，6th century B.C.，他们在Babylon形成synagogue（忧太集会）来发扬他们的教义。
《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记
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欧洲文化入门
Delacroix (26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset开始 of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school. Delacroix‘s use of expressive brushstrokes绘画技 巧 and his study of the optical光学的 effects of colour profoundly深深地 shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for the exotic异国的 inspired the artists of the Symbolist movement. A fine lithographer[li’θɔgrəfə] 石版家, Delacroix illustrated various works of William Shakespeare, the Scottish writer Walter Scott and the German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
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浪漫主义美术产生于大革命失 败以后的波旁王朝复辟时期， 人们对启蒙运动宣扬的理性王 国越来越感到失望，一些知识 分子感到苦闷，他们反对权威、 传统和古典模式，从而产生了 浪漫主义美术。他们提倡注重 艺术家的主观性和自我表现， 以民族奋斗的历史事件和壮美 的自然为素材，抒发对理想世 界的追求，以瑰丽的想象，夸 张的手法塑造形象，表现激烈 奔放的感情。总之，他们重感 情轻理性，重色彩轻素描，不 满现实，追求幻想。
欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结
欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结第一篇：欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结1.希腊罗马Homer Author of epics Sappho Lyric poet 三大悲剧家：Aeschylus Tragic dramatist Sophocles Tragic dramatist Euripides Tragic dramatist 喜剧家：Aristophanes Comedy writer 历史学家：Herodotus wrote about wars between Greeks and Persians Father of history Thucydides wrote about wars between Athens and Sparta and Athens and Syracuse the greatest historian that have ever lived 哲学和科学：Pythagoras All things were numbers founder of scientific mathematics Heracleitue Fire is the primary element Democritus Materialist，one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory Socrates Dissect of oneself，virtue was high worth of life，dialectical method Plato Man have knowledge because of the existence of certain general ideas Aristotle Direct observation，theory follow fact，idea and matter together made concrete individual realities Euclid a textbook of geometry Archimedes when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced “Give me a place to stand and I…ll move the World”Others Diogenes（the Cynics）Pyrrhon（the Sceptics）Epicurus（the Epicureans）Zeno（the Stoics）4th century B.C.后半叶希腊在Alexander，king of Macedon的领导下，5th century B.C.达到顶峰，146 B.C.被罗马攻克2.基督教和圣经Jews—以前叫Hebrews，3800B.C.穿过中东沙漠，1300B.C.Moses带领Hebrews离开埃及，开始他们的Exodus，他在Sinai山定了ten commandments in the name of God，40年后Hebrews定居Pelestine，known as Canaan，Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament，6th century B.C.，他们在Babylon形成synagogue（忧太集会）来发扬他们的教义。
欧洲文化入门复习重点
Introduction1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.Division One：Greek Culture and Roman Culture1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour.3、Ancient Greece’s epics was created by Homer.4、The Home r’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.5、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.6、Three masters in tragedy三大悲剧大师①AeschylusPrometheus Bound —→Shelly Prometheus Unbound②SophoclesOedipus the King —→ Freud’s “the Oedipus complex” (恋母情结)—→ David Herbert Lawrence’s Sons and lovers③EuripidesA．Trojan WomenB．He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)C．Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece，to be specific, Euripides.7、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes.Aristophanes writes about nature.8、History (Historical writing)“Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war (between Greeks and Persians)“t he greatest historian that ever lived.” —→ Thucydides —→ war (between Sparta and Athens) 9、①Euclid’s Elements解析几何It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.②ArchimedesHis work laid basis for not only geometry几何学,but also arithmetic算术, mechanics机械, and hydrostatics.流体静力学“Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world”.（Archimedes）10、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (罗马征服希腊的标志)From 146 B.C., Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire, and Greek that of the eastern half.Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.11、The dividing range in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.12、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.13、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato’s republic.14、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteedby the Roman legions(罗马军团)15、In the Roman history, there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was known asPax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)16、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteedby the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana17、The Roman Law protected the rights of plebeians (平民).18、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.19、After 395,the empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and West.20、Cicero西赛罗his legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的an enormous influence on the development of European prose.21、Virgil: Aeneid 阿尼德22、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.The world’s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所23、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式24、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式25. Many of Plato’s ideas were later absorbed into Christian thought.How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?(1)、Three founders1、Pythagoras①All things were numbers.②Scientific mathematics.③Theory of proportion.比例的理论2、Heracleitue①Fire is the primary elements of the universe.火是万物之源②The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一3、Democritus①the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者②materialism.唯物主义(2)、Three thinkers1、Socrates①He hadn’t works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.②The dialectical method was established by Socrates.2、Plato①The Academy is the first school in the world, it was established by Plato.②He has four works. Dialogues, Apology, Symposium and Republic.3、Aristotle①The Lyceum is the second school in the world, it was established by Aristotle.②Aristotle is a humanist.(2)、Five contending schools1、The Sophists诡辩派①Under the leadership of Protagoras.②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论③His doctrine is “man is the measure of all things”.2、The Cynics犬儒派①Under the leadership of Diogenes.②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.③He proclaimed his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.3、The Sceptics置疑学派①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable, and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.4、The Epicureans享乐派①Under the leadership of Epicurus.②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual enjoyment.Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.5、The Stoics斯多哥派①Under the leadership of Zeno.②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.He developed into Stoics’ duty.He was also a materialist.What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)？1、For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.2、For another, he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world3、Aristotle thought happiness was men’s aim in life，but not happiness in the vulgar sense, but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation.What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development?There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere. Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.1、Spirit of innovation创新精神The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.3、Lasting effect持续的影响①Countless writers have quoted, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect. ②In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn. ③In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.Division Two：The Bible and Christianity1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture: Judaism and Christianity.3、The Jewish tradition, which gave birth to Christianity. (犹太教是基督教的前身)Both originated in Palestine, which was known as Canaan.4、The ancestors of the Jews — the Hebrews.5、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.6、The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.7、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.8、The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.9、The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.10、The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch.摩西五经11、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.12、Noah’s Ark was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.13、The content of historical Books: 1200B.C. 586 B.C.Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C., till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.14、The History Books① The development of system of landed nobles.② The development of monarchy. 君主专制③ Establishment of the two Kingdoms. 两大王国的初步形成④ The settlement in the highlands⑤ Age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon.15、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.16、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew (马修福音书)17、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.What difference between Christianity and the other religions?Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life. (加尔文主义也有这样的观点)What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.2、Miltion’s Paradise Lost , Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden.Division Three：The Middle Ages1、the Middle agesIn European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it was the transitional period(过渡时期) between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century.2、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭3、Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”,a grant of land.4、5、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.6、The word “catholic” meant “universal”.(广泛的，无处不在的)7、St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)8、Augustine —→ “Confession” and “The City of God”9、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)10、Crusades went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades.11、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.12、Carolingian RenaissanceCarolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.13、National Epics(民族史诗运动)The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.14、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点：① power of observation (观察)② piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③ sense of humour ④ warm humanity (温暖的人性)15、Gothic① The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.② It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.③ The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式）16、The Canterbury Tales:① The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.② Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.③ Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.17 In the middle ages, what cultures began to merge？Classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合). It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？1、During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.2、The Christian church continued to gain widespread power and influence.3、In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years.4、It shaped people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages?1、feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners, the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners, but they still had freedom, they were called freemen.3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners, and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.4、In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散) government.6、As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture?(What is the great significance of the Crusades?)1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制)3、Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire for wealth or power began to overshadow their religious ideals.4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century, universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字), algebra (代数), and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.5、As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade inwestern Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments.How did literature develop in the middle ages?1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy: (但丁与神曲)① His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.② The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.③ Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales: (乔叟与坎特布雷集)① The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.②Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer’s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵) the French and Italian styles.③ Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.Division Four：Renaissance and Reformation1、RenaissanceGenerally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The wo rd “Renaissance” means revival, specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence, was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级), to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture.2、In Renaissance literature of Italy, Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.3、Intellectuals became closely tied up with the rising bourgeoisie. (人文主义兴起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)4、At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.(以人为本—人文主义的核心)5、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.6、Michelangelo —— David —— Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible, the Genesis ) —— Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶) —— Moses (摩西)7、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)He painted his Madonnas in different postures against different backgrounds.8、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派). Plato and Aristotle engaged in argument.9、Titian —— The Venus of Urbino (维纳斯)10、John Wyclif —— translation of the Bible into English for the first time.11、Martin Luther —— translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.12、The reformation get its victory first in England.13、ReformationThe Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经14、CalvinismCalvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。
欧洲文化知识要点全
欧洲文化知识要点第一——四章戏剧三个悲剧作家AeschylusHis works“Prometheus Bound”“Persians”“Agamemnon”SophoclesHis works“Oedipus the King”“Electra”“Antigone”EuripidesHis works“Andromache”“Medea”“Trojan Women”Aristotle said of Euripides ―If a bad manager in all other points, Euripides is at least the most tragic of the poets‖.喜剧作家AristophanesHis works“Frogs”“Clouds”“Wasps”“Birds”Swift said of Aristophanes: As for comic Aristophanes, The dog too witty and too profane is.历史HerodotusHe is often called ―Father of History‖, wrote about the wars between Greeks and PersiansThucydidesHe is more accurate as an historianHe told about the war between―Athens and Sparta‖―Athens and Syracuse‖Macaulay, himself an eminent historian, called Thucydides―the greatest historian that ever lived哲学和科学PythagorasHe was the founder of Scientific mathematicsTo him and his school we owe the abstract conceptions underlying mathematics--- point, line, magnitude, surface, body ----and the first theory of proportion.HeracleitusHe believed“fire”to be the primary element of the universe.He said ―all is flux, nothing is stationary‖―you can’t step twice into the same river‖DemocritusHe speculated about the atomic structure of matter,选段for all men good and truth are the same ,but pleasure is different for different me n…………哲学家Socrates:we know him chiefly through what Plato recorded of him in his famous ―Dialogues‖PlatoHis major works“The Apology”,“Symposium”《会饮篇》“ T he Republic”He built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. It dealt with, among otherthings, the problem of how, in the complex, ever—changing world, men were to attain knowledge.He said: ―We look not at the things which are seen but at the things which are bit seen: for the things which are seen are temporal ―but the things which are not seen are eternal‖.His philosophy is called―Idealism‖.Shelly said: ―Plato was essentially a poet----the truth and splendor of his imagery, and the melody of his language, are the most intense that it is possible to conceive.AristotleHis major works “Ethics”“Politics”“Poetic”“Rhetoric”Dante called Aristotle the master of those who know.The difference between Plato and Aristotle (见课后题)百家争鸣①Sophists —Protagoras: ―man is the measure of all things‖②Cynics —Diogenes“◆decided to live like a dog, ◆rejected all conventions , ◆advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life, ◆proclaimed hisbrotherhood.③Sceptics —Pyrrhon④Epicureans — Epicurus : ―◆believed pleasure to be the highest good in life ,but bypleasure he meant ,not sensual enjoyment ,but freedom from pain and emotionalupheaval .⑤Stoics—Zeno : ―the most important thing in life is not pleasure but duty‖科学EuclidWell-known for his ―Elements‖ArchimedesHe discovered that when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displacedHe invented machines which greatly helped his native city Syracuse against the Romans.He said: ― give me a place to stand , and I will move the world‖建筑ParthenonAcropolis an Athens建筑风格Ⅰ.the Doric: masculine style ,sturdy ,powerful, severe-looking ,show a good sense of proportions and numbers , monotonous ,and unadorned.ⅱ.Ionic : feminine style ,graceful and elegant ,show a wealth of ornament.ⅲ.Corinthian : ornamented and luxury .雕刻1.Discus Thrower2. Venus de Milo3. Laocoon group陶器1.Black-figure paintings2.Red-figure paintings罗马文化罗马和希腊The burning of Corinth in 146B.C. marked Roman conquest of Greece.拉丁文学Marcus Tullius Cicero:⑴noted for his oratory and fine writing styl e⑵his legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction⑶his eloquent, oratorical manner of writing described as ―Cieronian”(4)the good of the people is the chief law(5)The thing which is the most outstanding and the most desirable to all healthy andgood and well-off persons, is peaceful life with honor.(6)Never less idle than when wholly idle, nor less alone than when wholly aloneJulius Caesar(1)became dictator in Rome for a few years(2)his work“Commentaries”(3)models of succinct Latin(4)I came , I saw , I conquered.(5)The die is cast.(6)Man willingly believe what they wish.押韵的散文诗歌LucretiusHis work“On the Nature of Things”Nothing can be created out of nothingMatter is eternalVirgilThe greatest of Latin poetsHis work ― Aeneid”He was also the Dante’s book建筑(1)The Pantheon(2)Pont du Gard(3)The Colosseum雕刻（1）Constantine the Great（2）Spoils from the Temple in Jerusalem（3）She-wolf第二章总述Christianity is by far the most influential in the west, it originated in Palestine.Some 3800years ago the ancestors of the Jews-the Hebrews ---wandered through the deserts of the Middle East .Hebrews, which means “wanders‖旧约The Bible is a collection of religious writings composing two parts :the Old testament (about God and the Laws of God)and the new testament (the doctrine of Jesus Christ) .The word ―Testament‖means―agreement”—namely, the agreement between God and Man1.The Pentateuch∕ Torah（摩西五经）Genesis : a religious account of the origin of the Hebrew people, including the origin of the world and the man ,the career of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph(the fall of the Man ,Noah’s Ark).Exodus: a religious history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt ,the period when they began to receive God’s Law.Leviticus : a collection of primitive laws.Numbers: a continuation of the account of the flight from Egypt with two censuses about the Exodus.Deuteronomy: the final words of Moses to his people , restating his orders and fifty years experiences ad a leader.摩西十诫（见课后题）The Historical Books(史书)Book of JoshuaBooks of JudgesBooks of SamuelBooks of KingsBooks of the ChroniclesBook of EzraBook of NehemiahThese works were written sometimes between 800B.C. and 500B.C.,dealing with history of the Hebrew form their entry into Palestine around 1200B.C..The Poetical Booksa.Book of Jobb.Book of Psalmsc.Proverbd.Ecclesiastese.Song of Solomon选段：I am the rose of Sharon,And the lily of the Valleys.As the lily among thorns,So is my love among the daughters.The ProphetsAmos: he was the spokesman of labor class基督教的兴起Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate if from all other religion a: Jesus Christ is the Son of God. b: God gave his only begotten sonAt the heart of Christianity is the life of Jesus基督教的蔓延The chief persecutions were under Nero, Diocletian.By 305Diocletian gave up his effort to destroy the young religion.Soon a war between rivals for the throne followed and was won by Constantine. He, who believed that God had helped him in winning the battle issued the Edict of Milan in 313 and made the Christianity legal.In 1932A.D., Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed all other religionsAfter 5-th, Nestorianism reached China新约The four accounts were believed to have been written by Matthew, Mark Luke and John, four of Jesus’ early followersThe last Supper and the Crucifixion is from St. John .圣经的十个版本1．Septuagint( the oldest extant)Greek2．Vulgate version(the most ancient extant by Jerome)Latin3．First English version(translated by Wycliff)4．William Tyndale’s version5．The Great Bible by HenryⅧ6．Authorized／King James version(the most important and influential of English Bible)7．American edition of Revised version8．New King James Bible9．Good News Bible10. The New English Bible第三章总述Age of faith(辅导书)庄园和教堂Feudalism(见辅导书)V assals: in 732 Charles Martel , a ruler gave his soldiers estates known ad fiefs as a reward for their service, they granted the right to govern large sections of landad fiefs to great lords ,these lords knows ad vassals.Knighthood and Code of Chivalry(见辅导书)教会组织The word ―catholic‖ meant―universal‖教父和修道院的生活St. JeromeA notable champion of early monasticismHe translate the Bible into Latin from the Hebrew and Greek originalsHis translation work, the Vulgate , became the official Latin Bible used by the Roman Catholic Church of this dayAugustine of HippoHe lived in North Africa in 5-th century.His works “the Confessions” and ―the City of God.St. BenedictHe founded Benedictine Rule about 529A.D.He gave up all his possessions before entering the monarchy.He wore simple clothes and ate only certain simple foodsHe could not marry and had to obey without question the orders the abbot (男修道院院长)He had to attend service seven times during the day and once at midnight.天主教的权力和影响1.Under feudalism, people of western Europe were mainly divided into three classes:clergy, lords and peasants.2.In the late Middle Ages only Catholics were considered members of society.3.most of Kings and nobles could not read and write, they used clergy to carry outimportant government duties.4.For centuries, the clergyman were the only teachers, as they were the best educatedmen in their day.5.People had to pay heavy taxes to their parish churches, art of which passed on to thePope in Rome.6.Nobles and kings often gave lands, crops or cattle to support the church.7.many high church officials were themselves big landowners and influential nobles8.The Church even set up a church court--- the inquisition to stamp out so calledheresy.学术与科学Charlemagne and Carolingian RenaissanceCharlemagneHe temporarily restored order in western and central Europemost important figure of the early medieval period.He encouraged interest in the Christian religion and ancient learning.功绩1.setting up monastery schools2.giving support to scholars3.setting scribes to work copying various ancient booksAlfred the GreatRuler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, contributed greatly to the Medieval European culture..Founding new monasteriesPromoting translations into the vernacular from the Latin worksInspires the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.St. ThomasAn Italian philosopher and theologianHis work ―Summa Contra Gentiles‖Roger BaconA monk, one of the earliest advocates of scientific research ,Called for observation and experimentationMain work“Opus maius” and “encyclopedia of the science of his time”Beolwulf is an Anglo-Saxon epic, in alliterative verse, originating from the collective efforts of oral literature.Song of Roland is the most well-known of a group of French epics known as La Chanson de GestsDante Alighieri and the Divine ComedyDanteThe greatest poet of Italy and Also a prose Writer, literary theorist, moral philosopher as well as political thinkersHis masterpiece “Divine Comedy‖Express humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit of RenaissanceWrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin which influenced decisively the evolution of European literature away from its origins in Latin culture to a new varied expression.第四章文艺复兴和改革新文学Giovanni Boccacciohis work“ Decameron”《十日谈》Petrarchbest known for “Canzoniers”《歌集》早期复兴的艺术家GiottoHe was the forerunner of the Renaissance.His figure were massive rather than graceful and elegantHis works“Flight to Egypt”“Betrayal of Judas”DonatelloHe was a sculptorHis works“David”“T he Gattamelata Equestrian Statue”《格泰梅拉达骑马塑像》顶峰时期的艺术家da VinciHe was a man of many talents, a Renaissance man in the true sense of the word.His works“Last Supper”“Mona Lisa”选段：A good painter has two chief objects – to paint man and the intension of his soul.The former is easy, the latter hard….MichelangeloHe was the towering figure of the Renaissance.His works“David”“Sistine Chapel”“Dying Slave”“Moses”RaphaelHis work“Madonna”“School of Athens”TitianHe was the most prolific of the great Venetian painters of the western worldThe father of the modern mode of paintingHis works“The V enus of Urbino”“Sacred and Profane love”“Madonna of the Pesaro Family”“Man with the Glove”法国的文艺复兴RabelaisGargantua and PantagruelSonnets pour HeleneMontaigneHis works “Essays”“of Repentance”His famous words ―what do I know?‖西班牙的文艺复兴CervantesHe was a novelist, a dramatist, and a poet.His work “Don Quixote”艺术El Greco(格列柯)One of the outstanding artists of the Counter-ReformationHis major work“ the Burial of Count Orgaz”《奥尔加斯伯爵下葬》北方文艺复兴ErasmusHe was a great Dutch scholar and humanistHis work“The Praise of Folly”佛兰德的文艺复兴Bruegel(勃鲁盖尔)He was a Flemish painterHis works “The Land of Cockayne”《理想之逸乐乡》“Return of the Hunters”德国的文艺复兴DurerHe was the leader of the Renaissance in GermanyHis work“ Knight, Death and the Devil”《骑士，死神与魔鬼》第五章The seventeenth century总述1:These scientists abandoned the traditional reliance on authority and the accepted method of“deductive reasoning”《演绎论》2:New scientific method was developed3:Nearly all the scientific achievement that modern world were made in 17-th4:There is new understanding to the man and universe and material5:The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class ,the bourgeoisie, and other class, this set the foundation for democracy.科学Copernicus (哥白尼)The forerunner of the modern scienceChief work“The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs《天体运行论》Kepler(凯普勒)Kepler’s Laws1:Each planet moves in an ellipse ,not a perfect circle, with the sun at one focus.2:Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it3:The distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation the time period the planet took to complete revolution around the sun.Galilei （伽利略）He was the first man to use telescope to universeHe invented the first astronomical discoveryHe finally proved the Copernicus’ theory with the telescopeHe discovered Law of inertia(惯性定律)He discovered the law of falling bodiesHis main works “The starry Messenger”(天空信使) and “Sidereus Nuncius”Newton (牛顿)He invented calculusHe discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrumHis discovery of the law of the universal gravitationHis work “Mathematical Principal of Natural Philosophy”(自然哲学的数学原理) Leibniz (莱布尼兹)He was a German philosopher , scientist ,mathematician ,historian and diplomat.He opposed the Cartesian account of matterHis major works“New Essays Concerning Human Understanding”, (论人类意识新说)“New Physical Hypothesis”（物理学新假说）“Discourse on Metaphysics”（形而上学论）“New System of Nature （新自然体系）New Essays Concerning Human Understanding”（人类理解新论）哲学，政治学，文学（英国）Francis Bacon (略)Thomas Hobbes(托马斯·霍布斯)Works : Leviathan(利维坦)He argued that our knowledge comes from experienceHe believed that only material things are perceptible, and knowledge to us .He believed that man is selfish by natureHe held that man are by nature equal in bodily an mental capacitiesJohn Locke(约翰洛克)He was a English empiricistHis works“Essay Concerning Human Understanding”“Treatises of Civil Government”选段―A ll men are naturally free and equal in the state of nature .‖ Men living together according to reason without a common…….法国古典主义Descartes(笛卡尔)His major works “Discourse on Method an Meditation”《方法论》“Rules for the direction of the Mind”《指导理智的规则》“Meditations Concerning First Philosophy and Objects and Replies”《沉思录》He said ―I doubt, therefore I think ; I think, therefore I am‖Corneille(高乃依)He was the first great French neoclassical dramatistHis masterpiece“Le Cied”《熙德》Racine(拉辛)He was the greatest tragic dramatist of the French neoclassical theatreHis representative tragedies “Andromaque”《安德落玛刻》“Phaedraè”《菲德尔》Molière(莫里哀)He was the best representative dramatist of French classical comediesMajor works“Le Misanthrope”《愤世嫉俗》“L’Avare”《吝啬鬼》“Tartuffe”《伪君子》艺术Baroque Art(解释见课后题)Bernini(贝尔尼尼)He was a Italian sculptor and architect, and the prominent figure of Italian Baroque.Major works “David”“The Ecstasy of St. Theresa”《特雷萨的狂喜》Caravaggio (卡拉瓦乔)Major works “The Calling of St. Matthew”《呼唤圣马泰蒙》“The Cardsharps”《以诈术读纸牌为生者》Rubens (鲁本斯)Major works “The Raising of the Cross”《十字架的竖起》荷兰新教艺术Rembrandit (伦勃朗)Major works “Blinding of Samson”《叁孙弄瞎眼》“The Polish Rider”《波兰骑士》第六章启蒙时代Enlightenment (定义见课后题)法国的哲学和文学MontesquieuMajor works “Persian Letters”《波斯人信札》“The Spirit of the Laws”《论法的精神》Voltaire(伏尔泰)Major works“Lettres Anglaise”《哲学书简》“Candide”《老实人》Whatever you do, crush the infamous thing and love those who love you.Love truth, but pardon error.Liberty of thought is the life of the soul.I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.Rousseau(卢梭)Major works“The Origin of Human Inequality”《论人类不平等的起源》“The Social Contract”《民约论》“The Confessions”《忏悔录》Nature made men happy and good, but society makes him evil and miserableDiderot (狄德罗)Encyclopédie德国文学和哲学Lessing(莱辛)Major works“Minna von Barnhelm”《明娜封，巴尔赫姆》“Laocoon”《拉奥孔》“Hamburgische Dramaturgie”《汉堡剧评》Goethe (歌德)Major works“ The Sorrows of Young Werther”《少年维特的烦恼》A Chinese translation of it by Guo Moruo during the New Culture Movement of 1919 also moved many young Chinese to tears, a situation which draw from the translator these sentimental lines:青年男子那个不善钟情？青年女子那个不善怀春？“Faust”《浮士德》Schiller (席勒)Major works “The Robber”《海盗》“Cabal and Love”《阴谋与爱情》“ Wallenstein”《华伦斯坦》Kant (康德)Major works“Critique of Pure Reason”《纯粹理性批判》“ Critique of Practical Reason”《实践理性批判》―Critique of Judgment‖《判断力的批判》音乐BachHandel 韩德尔GermanyHe is good at oratorio古典时期Hayden海顿Austrian composerSonata（奏鸣曲）Mozart （莫扎特）Austrian composerConcerto(协奏曲)and opera第七章浪漫主义Romanticism (定义见课后题)德国的浪漫主义Goethe(见上面)Schiller (席勒) (见上面)Heinrich Heine(海涅)He was both romantic and classicist.His major work“Book of Songs”法国的浪漫主义Hugo (雨果)His major works“Notre Dame de Paris”《巴黎圣母院》“ Les Miserables”《悲惨世界》“Cromwell”《克伦威尔》Georg e·Sand (乔治·桑)俄国的浪漫主义Pushkin (普希金)He stood in the van of the Roman movement in RussianHis work“Eugene Onegin”《叶甫盖尼·奥尼金》音乐Beethoven（贝多芬）German composerHis most important contributions ―sonata‖His Symphony No.6 marked the beginning of 19th-century program musicSchubert (舒伯特)Austrian ComposerHe was the first figure in the history of the German ― Lied‖(浪漫曲) a combination of poetry and music.Chopin(肖邦)Polish ComposerHe was the poet of the pianoSchumann (舒曼)Tchaikovsky (柴可夫斯基)Russian ComposerSwan Lake《天鹅湖》现实主义法国的现实主义Stendhal (司汤达)His works “The Red and the Black”Balzac(巴尔扎克)His work“The Human Comedy”Flaubert(福楼拜)His work “Madame Bovary”《包法利夫人》MaupassantHis famous works“The Necklace”“The Piece of String”“The Umbrella”俄国的现实主义Gogol (果戈理)His work“Dead Soul”Turgenev(屠格涅夫)His work “A Hunter’s Sketches”《猎人的笔记》Dostoyevsky(陀思妥耶夫斯基)His work “Crime and Punishment”《罪与恶》Tolstoy(托尔斯泰)War and PeaceAnna Karenina《安娜·尼娜》Resurrection后印象主义Van Gogh (梵高)His works ―Starry Night‖―Sunflower‖―The Night Café11。
欧洲文化入门考点总结
欧洲文化入门考点总结[中文版]《欧洲文化入门》由于其内容庞杂，琐碎，因而是一门学习起来比较困难的课程。
我们要牢记文化的五分法：一、社会历史(包括政治、经济、宗教、历史) 二、哲学三、文学四、科学五、艺术(包括绘画、雕塑、建筑和音乐)，以记忆每个时代的各要点为主，理解纵向的变迁为辅，后者主要的作用时帮助我们更好的记住前者。
第一章希腊罗马文化希腊罗马文化可以说是欧洲文明的起源,所以这一章节应该是比较重要的章节.我们先看希腊的发展.希腊文明分为几个时期,她形成于公元前800-500年,经历了古典时代(也就是公元前500到公元前336年)和希腊化时代(也就是公元前336年到公元前31年).希腊文明达到顶峰是公元前5世纪.公元前146年,希腊被罗马攻克.希腊文明也就被罗马文明所取代.这段历史的重要大事有:1,公元前12世纪,随着特洛伊人的入侵,荷马史诗描述的正是希腊人与特洛伊人之间的战争(《以利亚特》和《奥得赛》).这里要注意的是,荷马史诗描述的时代并非荷马生活的时代.荷马生活在公元前700年.2,公元前6世纪,希腊世界开始有了全面改变,为后来的古典时代打开了通途.其中两个重要的城邦国家是雅典和斯巴达.雅典发展起一个完全不同类型的社会,公元前594年,梭伦成为雅典的首席执行官,他的贡献在于,在组织上为以后建立著名的雅典民主奠定了基础.雅典之所以在当时拥有卓越的地位,是因为它在打败庞大的波斯帝国这场重大战争中起了最主要的作用.历史之父希罗多德在他的历史书中进行了详尽的描述.3,由于雅典的不断扩张引起了斯巴达的恐慌,因而在公元前431年爆发了伯罗奔尼撒战争.战争最终以雅典的失败而告终.修昔底得这位历史上最伟大的历史学家在其作品中,详尽描写了这一战争.4,伯罗奔尼撒战争后,斯巴达专横跋扈,底比斯和雅典为求相互保护而结成新的联盟.公元前371年,马其顿国王腓力二世打败了底比斯和雅典联军,他的闻名世界的儿子亚历山大大帝统治了希腊.至此,古典时代结束,希腊化时代即将开始.古典时代的希腊造就了一批哲学家和剧作家.哲学家主要以苏格拉底,柏拉图和亚里士多德为代表.苏格拉底提出自由辩论的重要性.柏拉图的目标是要实现一个既能维持贵族特权,又可为贫苦阶级接受的社会,并构件了唯心主义的根基.亚力士多德寻求自然界和人类社会各个方面的秩序.剧作家有埃斯库罗斯,阿里斯托芬,索福克勒斯.这一时期希腊也造就了像阿基米德和欧几里得这样的数学家,以及像希罗多德和修昔底得这样伟大的历史学家.希腊的艺术和建筑在神庙上得到最高体现.著名的雅典卫城的圣地帕台侬神庙就是卫雅典娜女神建造的.接下来我们从希腊文明走向罗马文明.希腊化时代与罗马时代前期相互交融,最终过渡到罗马时代.罗马时代经历了早期共和国(公元前509-公元前264年),后期共和国(公元前265-公元前27年),早期帝国(公元前27年-公元284年)和后期帝国(284-476年).公元前500年,罗马开始了独立城邦的生涯.经过三次布诺战争,罗马渐渐地满足了它的征服欲.战争中尤里乌斯恺撒声名鹊起.公元前27年,元老院授予屋大维"奥古斯都"和"大元帅"的尊称,罗马早期帝国形成.在此后的两个世纪中,罗马帝国的疆域达到最大范围,其文化处于极盛时期.这段历史时期被成为"罗马和平".但罗马的伟大也就仅至于此.罗马的伟大时代随着公元180年马可奥勒留的去世而告终.公元395年,罗马帝国彻底分裂为东罗马帝国和西罗马帝国.公元476年,西罗马帝国陷落.公元1453年,东罗马帝国被土耳其人占领.说到罗马的文化,它基本源于希腊,但罗马人在思想意识方面也有重大贡献.罗马人对欧洲文化所作的最重要的贡献是它所创立的罗马法律.在政治文化方面,罗马出现了以下比较重要的人物:1. 恺撒他是古代罗马政治家,军事家.他在文学方面也颇有建树.传世之作有《高卢战记》,《内战记》.对于他,我们要记住一句名言:也就是"I came, I saw, I conquered."2.西赛罗他是古罗马政治家,哲学家和最重要的演说家.主要成就在演说词和书信.3. 卢克来修他是罗马共和国末期主要诗人之一,提倡唯物论,无神论和原子论.作品有哲理诗《物性论》.4. 维吉尔他是罗马文学中最重要的作家.代表作品是《阿尼德》.在建筑,艺术方面,罗马人也做出了突出的贡献.如:圆形大剧场和建于公元前27年的罗马万神殿以及女狼雕塑等.以上是对希腊罗马文化的综述,下面我们来一起看两个问答题.1. How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop 希腊哲学是如何发展起来的回答这个问题,我们要掌握 1. 三个哲学奠基人及其理论:毕达哥拉斯,赫拉克里特,德谟克里特.2. 三位思想家及其理论:苏格拉底,柏拉图和亚力士多德.3. 其它思辩流派,如诡辩派,犬儒派等.这样才能完善这个问题.具体的答案我们可在练习册上找到.2. What's the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas (system) 柏拉图和亚力士多德的哲学体系有何区别回答这个问题,首先要阐述柏拉图的哲学体系包含什么,亚力士多德的哲学体系包含什么.然后再进行对比.他们两个最主要的一个区别在于亚力士多德强调理论联系实际,而柏拉图强调万物依赖主观思维.这是必须提到的一点.具体的答案见练习册.以上是对第一章希腊罗马文化的讲解.刚才我们谈到要研究欧洲发展的历史,除了要研究希腊和罗马文化历史这条线索之外,精神宗教形成线索,即犹太教和基督教历史也很重要. 在第二章中我们要看一下基督教和圣经的发展及其内容.第二章基督教和圣经这一章的重点是:犹太教与基督教的关系,基督教的教义核心,旧约的摩西五经,十诫,列王记,罗马帝国衰亡的原因,基督教与罗马帝国政府的关系的发展,基督教教士对维系和发展西方文明的贡献,圣经对西方的影响或贡献.在学习这一章中,大家应努力将2-4章关于基督教的知识连成线,从而理解和记忆欧洲文化的另一个重要源头的发展脉络――犹太教和基督教,彻底认清圣经在欧洲文化中的核心作用. 基督教是在西方最具影响力的宗教.犹太教是世界各地犹太人信仰的宗教.是基督教的前身.这一教派的经典《旧约》记载了犹太人的历史.犹太人以前叫Hebrews希伯莱人,在大约公元前3800前在中东一带沙漠流浪.约在公元前1300前,他们逐渐在伽南地区定居下来,并形成了小王国.基督教与犹太教关系密切.它与犹太教同发源于巴勒斯坦.基督教的核心是耶稣基督,其教义是:一,耶稣基督是上帝的儿子,上帝派他到人间来,跟人类一起受苦受难,最终拯救人类.二,基督是上帝唯一的儿子,任何信仰基督的人最终得到永生.耶稣基督生活在第一个罗马帝国.他教导人们热爱上帝,信仰上帝.由于他获得越来越多的人的爱戴,当时的统治者就收买了他十二个门徒中的犹大,在耶稣与他的弟子去往巴勒斯坦的路上,将他钉死在十字架上.由于耶稣的门徒圣保罗和圣彼得拒绝把罗马皇帝作为上帝来敬奉,而宣称只有真正的上帝才能受到崇拜,所以基督教一开始就被认为是一个具有反叛性的宗教受到包括罗马皇帝尼禄,多米提安在内的皇帝的迫害的宗教.尽管如此,基督教还是越来越受到人们的信奉,并开始从早期穷人信奉的宗教演变为各个阶层的人都能接受的宗教.成为一支显著的社会力量.统治者对它的态度也开始转变.公元305年,戴克里先放弃了摧毁基督教的企图.不久,君士坦丁一世由于相信上帝帮助他赢得战争而在313年发布"米兰赦令"宣布人人都有宗教信仰的自由,从此基督教取得了合法地位.392年,迪奥多西一世宣布基督教为罗马国教,而其它宗教不合法.至此,基督教从一个受压迫的对象转变为统治阶级的统治武器.基督教的主要经典是《圣经》.《圣经》由《新约》和《旧约》两部分构成.在前面已经谈到《旧约》是希伯莱人的文献.《旧约》共39部,写了从1000B.C.---100A.D.的事情,最重要的前五本是《摩西五书》,包括《创世纪》, 《出埃及记》, 《利未记》, 《民数记》, 《申命记》.《新约》成于基督教兴起之后,共27卷,其中前四卷福音书《马太福音》,《马可福音》《路加福音》《约翰福音》内容包括了有关耶稣言行的传说,耶稣使徒的传说.接下来我们看一下《圣经》的翻译:现存的最早的《旧约》希腊版本被成为旧约圣经.传说是应埃及王之请,由72位犹太学者在72日之内译成.现存最早的《圣经》拉丁文全译本是瓦尔盖特译本,是公元383-405年由圣杰罗姆所译,是罗马天主教认为唯一可信的拉丁语译本.其它英文译本及欧洲其它语种译本大都以瓦尔盖特译本为基础.当1500's发明印刷术时,拉丁圣经是第一部被全文印刷的作品. 继拉丁文译本之后,出现了现代语言的译本.第一部英文全文译本是1382年由约翰威克利夫在瓦尔盖特拉丁文译本基础上译成.之后,出现了英国宗教改革家丁道儿的英文译本.他的译本是直接根据希伯莱和希腊原文译成.后来出现的《大圣经》The Great Bible 就部分参照丁道儿的译本.1539年在亨利八世命令所有英国教堂中都必须供奉《大圣经》.但最重要的也是最具影响力的圣经译本是最初发表于1611年的官方版圣经或詹姆斯王圣经. 它的翻译是在詹姆斯国王的命令下由54为圣经学者翻译而成,语言简洁,使用高雅的安各鲁萨克森语言.这一译本被认为是英语语言中最伟大的作品.圣经修订本The Revised Version 出现在1885,1901年出现了标准美语版本圣经修订本.1979年,新版詹姆斯王圣经出版.对圣经的翻译有重大意义,英语圣经和莎士比亚的作品被成为现代英语的两大源头.后世的文学深受圣经的影响.如:Miltion's Paradise Lost (失乐园), Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Byron's Cain, up to the contemporary (同时期的) Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck's East of Eden. They are not influenced without the effect of the Bible.以上是对希腊罗马文化的综述,下面我们来一起看一个问答题.1. How was Christianity spread to Europe and became the official religion基督教是如何传到欧洲并成为统治性宗教？其实这个问题我们在综述总已经谈到.只要搞清基督教发展的历史阶段,每一阶段的社会状况,它为什么会从被迫害变成成为统治阶级的工具,统治阶级又是如何一步步将它从摈弃,迫害变为合法,变为国教的就可以了.这其中的重要人物是戴克里先,君士坦丁一世,迪奥多西一世.下面我们进行第三章,中世纪the Middle Ages.第三章中世纪The Middle Ages本章重点:封建土地制和分封制,天主教会的影响(包括教会组织,教会学术和哲学,教会艺术,教会影响),三种文化的融合,民族文学. 在学习这一章中,很多题目的内容相互交叠,互有异同,请反复研读,只需将骨干内容搞清楚,相似的题目的核心答案往往是一致的. 下面我们一起来看一下中世纪的内容.中世纪开始于476年日耳曼人将西罗马帝国的灭亡.这一年也被认为是欧洲古代奴隶制社会历史的终结.从这时起,直到17世纪中叶英国资产阶级革命爆发,是欧洲历史上的中世纪.中世纪是欧洲封建制度形成,发展和衰亡的历史.欧洲历史的中世纪大致可分为三个时期.公元5-11世纪为初期,是封建社会形成时期;公元12-15是中世纪的中期,也是它的全盛时期;公元16-17世纪是中世纪的末期,是封建社会衰落瓦解和资本主义兴起的时期.中世纪的最初几个世纪是在混战的状况中.在日耳曼人建立的王国中,以六世纪法兰克王国最强大.公元8世纪末和九世纪初,法兰克国王查理曼大帝建立了强大的帝国.查理曼国王在1800年被教皇加冕,授予"罗马皇帝"之称.查理曼大帝应该说是中世纪早期最重要的人物了.从11世纪起,西方随着经济的迅速发展,国家君主国崛起,新的知识水平的出现,扩张主义盛行――首先是地方的十字军东侵,然后是向海外推进,在数世纪内导致全球性霸权.而东罗马帝国经过长久的挣扎之后,注定了1453年的灭亡.中世纪的封建土地所有制feudalism是欧洲各地区的主要的政治制度.封建制度是一种政体,在这一政体中,那些拥有地产的人也拥有政权,因此,封建主和封臣之间的契约代替了国家权利.大多数时间里掌握国家政权的是那些封臣们而不是国王.这些强有力的封建领主(vassals)在把他们的封地分成更小的封地(fiefs),分给他们的追随者们.当时最基本的经济组织是封建庄园(manor),农奴依附在庄园领主的土地上,被迫无偿为他们劳动.公元1054年,基督教教会分裂为罗马天主教(the Roman Catholic Church)和东正教(the Eastern Orthodox).罗马天主教将拉丁语作为正式语言.中世纪时期,几乎所有欧洲人都信奉罗马天主教.因此,中世纪也被成为"信仰时代"(Age of Faith).天主教会有严格的等级之分.教皇(Pope)享有绝对的权威,以下以此为大主教(Archbishop),主教(bishop),牧师(Priest)和天主教会现有成员,教会有严密的组织和纪律.隐修院制度产生于这一时期,并培养了大批的修道士,比如,将圣经全文译成英文的圣杰罗姆以及于公元529年创立本尼狄克法则的圣本尼狄克.基督教思想一个最重要的领袖人物是公元5世纪的奥古斯丁.他对基督教神学思想产生了深远的影响.《忏悔录》和《上帝之城》是他的两部不朽的著作.基督教在欧洲封建社会的政治生活中起着十分重要的作用.原来在罗马帝国时期为奴隶主统治服务的基督教到了中世纪自然地变做封建主统治的重要工具,成为封建制度的精神支柱.基督教世界排斥异己,并且好战成性.其中当属十字军东侵(the Crusades)最为著名.尤其是对圣地巴勒斯坦几次入侵.虽然最后以失败告终,但却促进了东西方文化的交流,为君主政体的形成准备了条件.在学术和科学方面,中世纪的欧洲知识为即将道来的西方新兴世界作一些铺垫.查理曼大帝(Charlemagne)和他的卡罗林复兴(Carolingian Renaissance),阿尔弗莱德大帝(Alfred the Great)和他的学术中心,还有意大利神学家阿奎那(St. Thomas Aquinas)的经验哲学(Scholasticism)和托马斯主义,英国哲学家,科学家培根(Roger Bacon)的实践的重要意义,无一不对文化的保存与发展做出了巨大的贡献.在文学创作方面,出现了长篇的史诗(Epic).日耳曼人的一支盎格鲁萨克逊人的史诗《贝欧伍尔夫》是流传至今的早期英雄史诗最完整的一部.而《罗兰之歌》则是法国史诗中最著名的. 中世纪还产生了两位伟大的诗人――但丁和乔叟.意大利著名诗人但丁的《神曲》是世界文学史上的划时代的作品,表达了即将到来的文艺复兴时期的人文主义思想.英国诗人乔叟被称为英国文学史上第一位短篇小说家和第一位现代诗人,他最著名的作品是坎特伯雷故事集. 中世纪的建筑与艺术主要是罗马式的和哥特式的,他们都是古典艺术的延伸.以上是对中世纪内容的综述,下面我们来解答一道问答题.1. What were the power and influence of the Roman Catholic church in the Medieval times (the Catholic Church ) 罗马天主教在中世纪的影响地位如何回答这个问题我们从以下几个方面:1) 罗马天主教从教皇到教士的严格的层级制度和组织.2) 罗马天主教在经济上和政治上的统治地位,宗教裁判所的作用.3) 人们对罗马天主教信仰度,也就是为什么中世纪被叫做"信仰时代".4) 罗马天主教在文化艺术上的影响地位.比如哥特式建筑,罗马式建筑等.5) 十字军东侵所造成的影响.接下来共同学习一下第四章,文艺复兴和宗教改革.这也是欧洲文化入门中相当重要的一个章节.第四章文艺复兴与宗教改革本章重点有:科学背景,意大利文艺复兴的背景,意大利文艺复兴的文学和文艺大师,16世纪宗教改革,宗教改革领袖,英西法德荷诸国的文学人物及作品.这个时期是欧洲封建社会逐渐解体,资本主义生产方式在封建社会母体内蕴育的时期,也是欧洲从中世纪封建社会向资本主义过渡的历史转折时期.从十四世纪开始,欧洲封建社会陆续出现了资本主义关系的萌芽;十五世纪末,随着新航路的开辟和地理大发现,世界市场形成了,这就进一步推动了资本主义的发展.但,这时新兴的资产阶级在政治上还是软弱的,因而他们的反封建的斗争主要表现在思想文化方面.这一时期资产阶级反封建的思想斗争主要采取了两种方式:宗教改革和文艺复兴.文艺复兴是从十四世纪到十七世纪初先在意大利产生,然后在欧洲其它许多国家相继发展起来的一次资产阶级性质的思想文化运动.它是资产阶级借助于古代文化以反对封建制度和宗教势力的一次斗争.这一时期,古希腊,罗马文化重新受到重视,当时新兴资产阶级的思想家们打着"回到希腊去"的旗号,声称要把久被淹没的古典文化"复兴"起来,"文艺复兴"由此而得名.而实际上,资产阶级的目的不是重建奴隶制旧文化,而是要摆脱封建思想的桎梏,建立适应资本主义生产关系的新的意识形态.人文主义是文艺复兴时期资产阶级反封建斗争的思想武器,也是这一时期资产阶级进步文学的中心思想.与天主教会的宗教世界观针锋相对的是,人文主义提出人是宇宙的中心,对"人"的肯定,成了资产阶级思想的核心.宗教改革是资产阶级在宗教外衣下进行的一次反封建斗争.天主教会是中世纪西欧封建制度的精神支柱,一切反动势力的总代表.宗教改革是从教会营垒内部进行的针锋相对的斗争,它始于1517年马丁路德(Martin Luther)在维登堡大学宣布的宗教改革纲领,并迅速遍及欧洲大陆.宗教改革者反对以罗马教皇为首的罗马天主教的绝对权威,主张对宗教教义,仪式和等级制度进行改革,并提出将《圣经》翻译成各国文字,以使平民可以不通过教会而直接与上帝进行交流.宗教改革运动的另一领袖加尔文(John Calvin)宣扬预定论,主张人生来就有原罪,只有极少数人可以成为上帝的选民.因此人们必须不断地辛勤工作,从而获得拯救.宗教改革动摇了中世纪以来罗马天主教的统治,解放了人们的思想.那以后,基督教分裂为旧教(the Roman Catholic)与新教(the Protestant).同时,宗教改革也是一次社会改革运动,它反对罗马天主教对各国政治,经济的干涉.这一主张适应了新兴资产阶级的要求.下面我们来看一下文艺复兴在各国文学艺术上的体现.首先我们来看意大利.作为文艺复兴的发源地,意大利率先在文学艺术上取得了很大成就.这一时期,文学方面的杰出代表卜加丘(Boccaccio)和彼特拉克(Petrarch).卜加丘(Boccaccio)的代表作《十日谈》(Decameron)在欧洲文学史上具有重要意义,他发展了中古短篇故事的传统,为意大利散文奠定了基础.彼特拉克在诗歌方面做出了巨大贡献.他擅长并写下了大量的十四行诗和抒情诗.十四行诗成为欧洲的重要诗体,彼特拉克被称为现代诗歌之父.在艺术方面,文艺复兴早期的意大利艺术家有乔托(Giotto),布鲁内莱斯基(Brunelleschi),多纳泰洛(Donatello)和乔尔乔内(Giorgione)等.乔托(Giotto)是意大利现实主义绘画传统的奠基人,他的名作是《逃往埃及》(Flight into Egypt).布鲁内莱斯基(Brunelleschi)是一位建筑师,他的代表作弗洛伦萨大教堂圆顶.多纳泰洛(Donatello)的雕塑达到了解剖学的精确,代表作有青铜铜像《大卫》(David)《加塔梅拉塔骑马像》(The Gattamelata Equestrian).画家乔尔乔内(Giorgione)的画结构平衡,色彩和谐.他的名作是《睡着的维纳斯女神》(Sleeping Venus)开创了西方绘画中历久不衰的一个题材:裸体躺卧着的女神像.意大利文艺复兴在16世纪达到全盛时期,文艺的中心从弗洛伦萨转移到米兰和罗马.全盛时期产生了四位巨匠,他们是达芬奇(da Vinci)米开朗基罗(Michelangelo)拉斐尔(Raphael)和提香(Titian).达芬奇的传世之作《最后的晚餐》(the Last Supper),《蒙娜丽莎》(Mona Lisa),雕塑家米开朗基罗的大理石造像《大卫》,《即将死去的奴隶》,拉斐尔的圣母画,提香则是最多产的画家,建立了在帆布上涂油彩的传统,被誉为现代画之父.在意大利文艺复兴的影响下,15世纪末,法国人文主义开始研究古希腊文化和哲学,出现了龙沙(Ronsard)拉伯雷(Rabelais),蒙田(Montaigne)等伟大作家.拉伯雷的长篇小说《巨人传》(Gargantua and Pantagruel)以龙沙为代表的七星诗社(Pleiade)为法国的语言发展做出了很大贡献.龙沙诗法国第一个近代抒情诗人,他对19世纪法国浪漫主义有着很大的影响.人文主义作家蒙田以他的《散文集》而闻名于世,他是近代欧洲散文体裁的创始人.西班牙人文主义发展较迟,直到16,17世纪之间,西班牙文学才进入"黄金时代".文艺复兴时期西班牙小说的最高成就是塞万提斯,他的代表作《唐吉珂德》宣告了骑士传奇的终结.《唐吉珂德》是流浪汉小说的典范之作,被誉为欧洲现代小说之父.北部领导荷兰尼德兰人文主义运动的人物是埃拉丝姆斯(Erasmus),他的《愚蠢颂》(The Praise of Folly)是部讽刺作品,揭露僧侣生活的虚伪.这一时期的画家是博鲁盖尔(Bruegel)以风景画著称,名作有《雪中猎人》(The Return of the Hunters).他的乡村风景画对后来的画家米勒(Millet)有很大影响.在德国,马丁路德是宗教改革的领袖,他用德国人民的语言翻译了《圣经》,使平民和农民能引用《圣经》的语言作为斗争的武器,对于德国语言的统一发生过作用,并奠定了德国文学语言的基础.在艺术方面,版画家丢勒(Durer)的木雕和荷尔拜因(Holbein)的肖像成就很高.英国文学是文艺复兴时期欧洲文学的顶峰.早在14世纪,英国就产生了人文主义作家杰弗利乔叟(Geoffery Chaucer),作为承上启下的人物,乔叟我们在中世纪文学中已经谈到.到16世纪后半期到17世纪初,英国在伊丽莎白一世在位时,人文主义文学发展到了繁荣时期.这一时期的文学巨匠不仅在英国文学中占有很重要的地位而且在世界文学中也举足轻重.他们是威廉莎士比亚,托马斯莫尔,弗兰西斯培根,埃德蒙斯宾赛.莫尔是早期人文主义作家,他的主要著作《乌托邦》描绘了一个理想社会.成为后来描写理想社会文学的开端,也是空想社会主义的最初著作之一.16世纪后期,英国文艺复兴运动达到高潮,人文主义文学空前发达.诗歌,小说,戏剧等都得到了很大发展.诗歌以斯宾赛的成就最高.他的代表作是长诗《仙后》.斯宾赛被成为"诗人的诗人".十六世纪文学中成就最大的是戏剧.而其中文学成就最高的是莎士比亚,他也代表了欧洲文艺复兴的最高成就.在他的作品中,资产阶级人文主义思想表述得最为充分,艺术性也最高.他的重要悲剧,戏剧和历史剧有《哈姆雷特》,《麦克白》,《奥赛罗》,《李尔王》,《威尼斯商人》,《第十二夜》,《皆大欢喜》,《罗米欧与朱丽叶》,《安东尼和克里奥帕特拉》,《亨利四世》,《亨利五世》等.他的诗歌成就也很高,这主要表现在他的《十四行诗》中.文艺复兴时期,科技也取得了重大进展.除了地理大发现以外,哥白尼发表了太阳中心说,并著有《天体运行论》,他被成为是西方现代天文学之父.安德勒斯维萨留斯(Andreas Vesalius)著有《论人体的结构》,他是西方现代解剖学的奠基人.此外还有在创办出版社的意大利学者和印刷商奥尔德斯马努蒂尔乌斯(Aldus Manutius),西方政治学之父马基雅维里及其著作《君主论》.总之,文艺复兴是欧洲从中世纪封建社会向近代资本主义转变时期的反封建,反教会神权的一场伟大的思想解放运动.在这一时期,欧洲哲学,文学,艺术,科学等各方面都取得了极大的成就. 以上是对第四章的综述,下面我们来解答一下论述题.。
《欧洲文化入门》外国百科知识梳理
欧洲文化入门第一章特洛伊战争：特洛伊战争是以争夺世上海伦（Helen）为起因，以阿伽门农（Agamemnon）及阿喀琉斯（Achilles）为首的希腊军进攻以帕里斯及赫克托尔为首的的十年攻城战。
然而根据《世界通史》的论述，特洛伊地处交通要道，商业发达，经济繁荣，人民生活富裕。
亚细亚各君主结成联军，推举阿伽门农为统帅。
他们对地中海沿岸最富有的地区早就垂涎三尺，一心想占为己有，于是以海伦为借口发动战争，这才是特洛伊战争的真正目的。
民主制城邦：指全民行使权利的城邦，但全民仅指成年男性公民，而且公民权也是从父辈那里世袭而来。
荷马：古希腊盲诗人。
相传记述了公元前12～前11世纪特洛伊战争，以及关于海上冒险故事的古希腊长篇叙事代表作——史诗《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，即是他根据民间流传的短歌综合编写而成。
他生活的年代，当在公元前10～9、8世纪之间。
他的杰作《荷马史诗》，在很长时间里影响了西方的宗教、文化和伦理观。
伊利亚特：相传是由盲诗人荷马所作。
是重要的古希腊文学作品，也是整个西方的经典之一。
《伊利亚特》全诗共15,693行，分为24卷，主要内容是讲述了在阿伽门农的率领下，古希腊南部各城邦联合征战特洛伊的故事。
它通过对特洛伊战争的描写，歌颂英勇善战、维护集体利益、为集体建立功勋的英雄。
奥德赛：又译《奥德修纪》，是古希腊最重要的两部史诗之一《奥德赛》延续了《伊利亚特》的故事情节，相传为盲诗人荷马所作。
这部史诗是西方文学的奠基之作，是除《吉尔伽美什史诗》和《伊利亚特》外现存最古老的西方文学作品。
讲述了奥德修斯在特洛伊战争结束后返回家乡绮色佳岛的故事，书中讲述了奥德修斯在漫长的海上航行中的种种冒险经历，以及最终如何与忠实的妻子泊涅罗泊重新团聚的故事。
荷马史诗：《荷马史诗》相传是由古希腊盲诗人荷马创作的两部长篇史诗——《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》的统称，是他根据民间流传的短歌综合编写而成。
《荷马史诗》以扬抑格六音部写成，集古希腊口述文学之大成，是古希腊最伟大的作品，也是西方文学中最伟大的作品。
欧洲文化入门(The Age of Enlightenment)
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
7. No person shall be accused, arrested, or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as resistance constitutes an offense. 8. The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary, and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the commission of the offense. 9. As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty, if arrest shall be deemed indispensable, all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by law.
欧洲文化入门 第二章 考点 复习要点
I. General IntroductionIn European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages，also called Medieval times（476-1450）. It is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times.In the latter part of the fourth century the Huns（匈奴人） swept into Europe from central Asia, robbing and killing as they came along, and large-numbers of the half civilized Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths, the Franks, the Angles and Saxons, and the Vandals fled（逃避） their homelands in northern Europe and were pushed to cross the Danube river*（多瑙河） into the territory（领土） of the Roman Empire. In A. D. 476 a Germanic general killed the last Roman emperor（君主） and took control of the government. While the Eastern Roman Empire continued, the power of ancient Rome was gone. In its place mushroomed a great many Germanic kingdoms, which in a few hundred years were to grow into the nations known as England. France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. Between the fifth and eleventh centuries, western Europe was the scene of frequent wars and invasions（战争和侵略）. The political unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and disease killed many lives; towns and villages fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste.During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. It continued to gain widespread power and influence- In the Late Middle Ages,almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church.It is also known as the medieval period（1000）, and as the Dark Ages（476-1000）. As during the Middle times there wasno central government to keep the order, and the Christian church shaped people ’ s ideas and lives by taking the lead in politics, law, art, and learning of Europe, it is also called “ Age of Faith .”Whatever names we may give to this span of time, this is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged（传承、融合）. And it is this fusion and blending of different ideas and practices 'that paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.II . Manor and Church1. FeudalismFeudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word "feudalism" was derived from the Latin "feudum", a grant of land.a. Growth of FeudalismWhen the Western Roman Empire grew weak, people lived in constant danger of attacks from invaders and robbers. They had to find ways to protect their families and homes. Owners of small farms sought protection from large landowners, by giving them land and services; In return the large landowners promised to protect the landless peasants and their families. Besides, war had destroyed lots of towns, trade and business had declined, more and more townspeople fled to the countryside to seek protection from those powerful landowners. In this way, the large landowners came to own more and more and while the peas ants ended up giving the lords not only their land but their freedom as well. Most of them became serfs（农奴）, bound to the land where they had been born. Only very fewpeasants were freemen, they were usually the workers who made the ploughs, shod the horses, and made harnesses for oxen and horses.Then in 732 Charles Martel, a Prankish ruler gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as a reward for their service. They, granted the right to govern large sections of land as fiefs to great lords. These lords known as vassals in turn promised to fight for the king. And they themselves further granted parts of their fiefs to lesser vassals. Thus, a complicated system of government developed. After 800, the kings in Europe were usually very weak. Without a strong central government the kingdoms of Western Europe were divided into thousands of feudal manors or farming communities, each as big as an ancient polis. Some nobles grew more powerful than the king, and became independent rulers. They had the right to collect taxes and to make their own laws. Many of them coined their own money and raised their own armies. Therefore feudalism was also a system of government a form of local and decentralized government.b. The ManorThe centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. Some lords owned only one manor; others owned many. They lived in a manor house. The manor（庄园主的住宅） house originally consisted of one big room with a high ceiling and astraw-covered floor. There nobles（贵族） met with vassals（奴仆）, carried the laws and said their prayer. By the twelfth （第十二）century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses（堡垒）. They came to be called castles（城堡）. Medieval Europe was dotted with castles. For instance in Germany alone [here were as many as 1 0 000 castles.Near the manor stood a small village of wood and dirt cottages with thatched roof. The village was surrounded by forests, meadows, pastures,and fields. Most village had a church, mill（作坊）, bread oven（烤炉）, and wine press. At the centre of the manor stood the church.c. Knighthood and Code of Chivalry（骑士！）Almost all nobles were knights in the Medieval days. But no one was born a knight ― knighthood had to be earned. The training was both long and hard. A noble began his education as a page at the age of seven. He was taught to say his prayers, learned good manners and ran errands for the ladies. At about fourteen, the page(学习骑士，接收训练期间做侍从，可以被训练为骑士) became a squire(地主，乡绅) or assistant to a knight （骑士） who became his master.学习骑士在十四岁的时候成为乡绅或者作为自己导师（也是骑士）的助手。
欧洲文化入门精讲 1
1.Greek Culture &Roman CultureGreek CultureGreek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C.This was marked by the successful repulse of the Persian invasion early in the century. 公元前五世纪古希腊文化达到了鼎盛时期，其标志就是古希腊人在世纪初成功地击退了波斯人的进攻。
In the second half of the 4th century B.C.,all Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander,King of Macedon.在公元前4世纪后半叶，整个希腊在马其顿国王亚历山大大帝的统治之下。
In 146 B.C.,the Romans conquered Greece.公元前146年，罗马征服希腊。
The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour.雅典的经济以大规模的奴隶劳动为基础。
The Greeks loved sports.Once every 4 years the Greeks had a big festival on Olympus Mount which included contests of sports.Thus began the Olympic Games.Revived in 1896,the Olympic Games have become the world’s formost amateur sports competition. 希腊人热爱运动，每隔4年希腊人都会在奥林匹斯山举行盛大的体育比赛，这就是奥运会的开端。
欧洲文化入门重要信息点
Introduction (介绍)1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.Divison OneGreek Culture and Roman Culture1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour.3、Ancient Greece’s epics was created by Homer.4、The Homer’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.5、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.6、Three masters in tragedy三大悲剧大师①AeschylusPrometheus Bound—→Shelly Prometheus Unbound②Sophocles(之首)Oedipus the King—→ Freud’s“the Oedipus complex” (恋母情结) —→ David Herbert Lawrence’s Sons and lovers③EuripidesA．Trojan WomenB．He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)C．Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides human”(一个纯粹的人)D．Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece. To be specific, Euripides.7、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes.Aristophanes writes about nature.Swift says of him “As for comic Aristophanes, The dog too witty and too profane is.”8、History (Historical writing)“Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war(between Greeks and Persians)This war is called Peleponicion wars.“The greatest historian that ever lived.” —→ Thucydides —→ war (Sparta, Athens and Syracuse)9、① Euclid’s Elements解析几何It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.② ArchimedesHis work not only in geometry几何学,but also in arithmetic算术, machanics 机械, and hydrostatics.流体静力学Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.（Archimedes）10、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (罗马征服希腊的标志)From 146 B.C., Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire. Greek that of the eastern half.Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.11、The dividing range in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.12、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.13、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato’s republic.14、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions(罗马军团)15、In the Roman history, there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was known as Pax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)16、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana17、The Roman Law protected the rights of plebeians (平民).18、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.19、After 395,the empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and West.20、Cicero西赛罗his legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的an enormous influence(巨大影响) on the development of European prose.21、Virgil: Aeneid 阿尼德22、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.The world’s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所23、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式24、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式25. Many of Plato’s ideas we re later absorbed into Christian thought.How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?(1)、Three founders1、Pythagoras① All things were numbers.② Scientific mathematics.③ Theory of proportion.比例的理论2、Heracleitue① Fire is the primary elements of the universe.火是万物之源② The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一3、Democritus① the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者② materialism.唯物主义(2)、Three thinkers1、Socrates① He hadn’t works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.② The dialectical method was established by Socrates.2、Plato①The Academy is the first school in the world, it was established by Plato.②He has four works. Dialogues, Apology, Symposium and Republic.3、Aristotle①The Lyceum is the second school in the world, it was established by Aristotle.②Aristotle is a humanist.(2)、Five contending schools1、The Sophists诡辩派①Under the leadership of Protagoras.②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论③His doctrine is “man is the measure of all things”.2、The Cynics犬儒派①Under the leadership of Diogenes.②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.③He proclaimed his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.3、The Sceptics置疑学派①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable, and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.4、The Epicureans享乐派①Under the leadership of Epicurus.②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual enjoyment.Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.5、The Stoics斯多哥派①Under the leadership of Zeno.②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.Develop ed into Stoics’ duty.He was also a materialist.What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)？1、For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact.This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.2、For another, he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world3、Aristotle thought happiness was men’s aim in life，but not happiness in the vulgar sense, but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation.What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development? There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere.Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.1、Spirit of innovation创新精神The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.3、Lasting effect持续的影响①Countless writers have quoted, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect.②In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn.③In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.Division TwoThe Bible and Christianity1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture: Judaism and Christianity.3、The Jewish tradition, which gave birth to Christianity. (犹太教是基督教的前身)Both originated in Palestine, which was known as Canaan.4、The ancestors of the Jews — the Hebrews.5、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.6、The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.7、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.8、The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.9、The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between G od and Man.10、The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch.摩西五经11、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.12、Noah’s Ark was record ed in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.13、The content of historical Books: 1200B.C. 586 B.C.Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C., till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.14、The History Books① The development of system of landed nobles.② The development of monarchy. 君主专制③ Establishment of the two Kingdoms. 两大王国的初步形成④ The settlement in the highlands⑤ Age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon.15、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.16、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew (马塞福音书)17、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff. What difference between Christianity and the other religions?Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.(加尔文主义也有这样的观点)What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.2、Miltion’s Paradise Lost , Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden.Division ThreeThe Middle Ages1、the Middle agesIn European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it was the transitional period(过渡时期) between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century.2、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭3、Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.4、5、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.6、The word “catholic” meant “universal”.(广泛的，无处不在的)7、St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)8、Augustine —→ “Confession” and “The City of God”9、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)10、Crusades went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades.11、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.12、Carolingian RenaissanceCarolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.13、National Epics(民族史诗运动)The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.14、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点：① power of observation (观察)② piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③ sense of humour ④ warm humanity (温暖的人性)15、Gothic① The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.② It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.③ The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式）16、The Canterbury Tales:① The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.②Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.③Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.17 In the middle ages, what cultures began to merge？Classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合). It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？1、During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.2、The Christian church continued to gain widespread power and influence.3、In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and amember of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years.4、It shaped people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages?1、feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners, the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners, but they still had freedom, they were called freemen.3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners, and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.4、In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散) government.6、As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture?(What is the great significance of the Crusades?)1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制)3、Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire for wealth or power began to overshadow their religious ideals.4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century, universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字), algebra (代数), and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.5、As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments.How did literature develop in the middle ages?1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly usedform in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy: (但丁与神曲)① His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.②The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.③ Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales: (乔叟与坎特布雷集)① The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.②Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer’s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵) the French and Italian styles.③ Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.Division FourRenaissance and Reformation1、RenaissanceGenerally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance” means revival (复兴), specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence (从实质上讲), was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts (试图) to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级), to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.(权利威信)Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture (雕塑) and architecture. 最早开始于painting2、In Renaissance literature of Italy, Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.3、Intellectuals became closely tied up with the rising bourgeoisie.(人文主义兴起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)4、At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.(以人为本—人文主义的核心)5、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.6、Michelangelo—— David—— Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible, the Genesis )—— Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶)—— Moses (摩西)7、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)He painted his Madonnas in different postures against different backgrounds.8、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派). Plato and Aristotle engaged in argument.9、Titian—— The Venus of Urbino (断臂的维纳斯)Man with the Glove (带手套的人) ☆10、John Wyclif —— translation of the Bible into English for the first time.11、Martin Luther —— translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.12、The reformation get its victory first in England.13、ReformationThe Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经14、CalvinismCalvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。
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WEEK 1-3Reformation and Counter-Reformation P138-139The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement. It begin with Martin Luther‘s 95 thesis in 1517.This movement aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible,The demands of the reformists:---direct communication between the individual and God---simplifying rituals---abolishing heavy taxes levied on their countrymen---abolishing the indulgences1) Pre-Luther Religious ReformersJohn Wycliffe (about 1330¡ª1384) p-139Chief forerunner of Reformation. English theologian and religious reformer.He believed that Christ is man¡®s only overlord and that salvation depends upon predestination and grace rather than on membership of a visible church.He took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first time.Jan Hus (1372-1415)A Bohemian Czech religious leader, theologian. Attacked the abuses of the Church/ was imprisoned and exiled/ was burnt at stake / the Hus War2) Martin Luther(1483-1546) and His DoctrinesMartin Luther was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation. His doctrine marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church.Beginning of the Reformation p-140Translation of the BibleGospel of love and Ideas of EqualityIn the history of Germany, Martin Luther was more than a religious leader, he was a fighter for democracy and nationalism, a humanist who helped to build a competent educational system and a writer whose forceful language helped fix the standards of the modern German language3) John Calvin (1509-1564) and CalvinismCalvin was a French theologian.His Institutes of the Christian Religion was considered one of the most influential theological works of all times.Presbyterian governmentCalvinism stressed the absolute authority of the God’s will, holding that only those specially elected by God are saved.Calvinism was one of the main courses of the capitalist spirit4) Reformation in England p-143John Knox Scottish PresbyterianismHenry VIII / matrimonial affairs / Catherine Aragon / Anne BoleynIn 1534, the Act of Supremacy marked the formal break of the British with the papalauthorities. Thomas Cromwell---Vicar-Gene ral of the Church, King’s Chief Minister further broke from the Pope, closed the monasteries, took away their land and introduced church reforms.In England, the question of reform was not fundamentally one of belief or interpretation of the Bible but one of rejection of the supremacy of the Pope.5) Counter-Reformation p-144Council of TrentThe sessions of the Council reaffirmed that the Church had the sole right to interpret the Bible. The Council declared that the Latin Vulgate of Jerome to be the definitive translation of the text. It was also stressed that Catholicism was a religion of infallible authority.The Catholic Reformation, that is, counter-reformation afterwards was to a great extent occupied with the principles and requirements laid down at the council of Trent.Ignatius and the Jesuits p-145Ignatius was a Spaniard who devoted his life to defending the Roman Catholic Church.Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus.Today the Society of Jesus is still active with a membership of 31000, having institutions in various parts of the world.6) Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism p--146Reformation movement broke the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church. Protestantism came into being.Liberal ideasScienceCalvinismNavigation and discoveries of new lands7) Conclusion P147In education and cultural mattersIn religionIn languageIn spiritD. Renaissance in Other CountriesThe influence of the Italian Renaissance reached every corner of Europe.In FranceIn SpainIn the north: FlandersIn the NetherlandsIn GermanyIn EnglandIn one word, Renaissance in Europe ¨produced giants in power of thought, passion and character, in universality and learning.”1)Renaissance in FranceHistorical BackgroundA whole generation of humanists emerged in France. They began to study Greekculture and philosophy and this gave rise to writings of Ronsard, Rabelais and Montaigne.The Chateau of the Loire Valley was a great landmark in architectureIn music, the beginning of polyphonyIn religion, Calvinism won great popularityHuguenots—the Protestant group in FranceRenaissance Writers in Francei. Francois Rabelais (about 1483---1553)ii. Pleiadeiii. Michel Eyques de Montaigne ( 1533---1592)2)Renaissance in SpainBy 1479, the union of Castile and Aragon.In 1492, Moors were driven out; Columbus discovered America and claimed America for Spain. The 16th century, the beginning of the Golden age of Spanish literature. Meanwhile, Polygolt BibleLiteratureMiguel de Cervantes (1547---1616) a novelist, a dramatist and a poet.Don Quixote was a parody satirizing a very popular type of literature at the time, the romance of chivalry. Its sources are romantic as well as realistic, truthful and imaginative. It is recognized as the father of the modern European novel, and has had great impact on world literature.ArtEl Greco (1541---1614) a Spanish painterMajor Work: The Burial of Count Orgaz3)Renaissance in the NorthRenaissance in the NetherlandsErasmus (about 1466?---1536) a great Dutch scholar and humanist. P-160Work: The Praise of FollyRenaissance in FlandersPieter Bruegel (the Elder) (about 1525---1569) a Flemish painter of landscape and scenes of rural life. He was called peasant BruegelMajor Works: The Land of Cockayne (1567)The Return of the Hunters (1565)Renaissance in GermanyAlbrecht Durer (1471---1528)He was the leader of the Renaissance in Germany.He was a master of woodcut. His engravings are unsurpassed and his Water colours of animals and plants are exceedingly sensitive.Major Works: The Four Horsemen of ApocalpseKnight, Death and Devil,1513Hans Holbein (the younger) (1497--- 1543)He was the last great German master of the 16th century. His best known worksare his portraits.Major Works: Erasmus of RottendamPortrait of Henry VIII4) Renaissance in EnglandHistorical BackgroundThe War of Roses(1455-1485)The Reign of Elizabeth I (1558 -- 1603 ) was a period of political and religious stability and economic prosperity.The Church of England was re-established, ending the long time religious strife; Commerce and industry forged ahead as a result of the enclosure movement at home and the opening of new sea routes in the world.England began to embark on the road to colonization and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday of capitalist development.Thomas More (1477---1535)A great humanist during the Renaissance. Lord Chancellor to Henry VIII. He resigned (!532) after refusing t o agree to the king’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon. When he refused to conform to the Act of Supremacy, he was imprisoned, found guilty of treason and beheaded. Among his writings the best known is Utopia (1516)William Shakespeare (1564---1616)English playwright and poet whose body of works is considered the greatest in English literature. His plays, many of which were performed at the Globe Theatre in London, includehistorical works, such as Richard II,comedies, including Much Ado about Nothing and As You Like It,and tragedies, such as Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.He also composed 154 sonnets.The earliest collected edition of his plays, the First Folio, contained 36 plays and was published posthumously (1623).Taken as a whole, it could be said that Shakespeare’s early works showed optimism and his belief that love and benevolence will triumph over everything and concern for a peaceful and unified England whereas his later works, with deep insight, brought to light the contradiction between the humanists and the dark and brutal feudal and capitalist reality.E. Science and Technology during the RenaissanceThe Renaissance, among other things, was a revolt against the medieval concepts and an age of creation and discoveries.1) Geographical Discoveriesa. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)Italian explorer in the service of Spain who determined that the earth was round and attempted to reach Asia by sailing west from Europe, thereby discovering America (1492). He made three subsequent voyages to the Caribbean in his quest for a sea route to Chinab. Bartholomeu Dias (1466?--- 1500)A Portuguese navigator who discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.c. Vasco da Gama (about 1460---1524)A Portuguese explorer and colonial administrator. The first European to sail toIndia (1497-1498), he opened the rich lands of the East to Portuguese trade and colonization.d. Amerigo Vespucci (1457---1512)Italian navigator and explorer of the SouthAmerican coast. America was named in his honor.2) AstronomyNicolaus Copernicus (1473--- 1543)A Polish astronomer who advanced the theory that the earth and other planetsrevolve around the sun, disrupting the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. He is known as father of modern astronomy.3) Anatomya. Leonardo da Vinci (1452--- 1519)a great anatomist in Italy and during his life time Leonardo dissected more than 30 corpses.b. Andreas Vesalius (1514---1564)A Flemish anatomist. The founder of modern medicine His work Fabricamarked the beginning of a new era in the study of anatomy.4) PrintingAldus Manutius (1450---1515) The foremost printer in Italy.5) Political Science and Historiographya. Dante (1265-1321)Dante contributed a great deal to the establishment of the equality of the divine power and the secular power. Although a poet, Dante was a great innovator. He regards Emperor and Pope as independent, and both divinely appointed.b. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469--- 1527)An author and a statesman. He was called ¨DFather of political science¡¬ in the West. Works: Prince and Discoursesc. Giorgio Vosari (1511---1574)V osari was best known for his entertaining biographies of artists, Lives of the Artists (a study of cultural history).F. Summing-upThe Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a way not possible under the medieval Church¡®s dispensation. In this release lay the way of development of the modern world. The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow. It shattered Medieval Church’s stifling control over man, thus paving the way for capitalism。