l语义学第十二讲 指称意义

?A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The rubber band was broken. ?A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The preface was slipshod. ?A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The waiter must have taken it up in the morning.
常规关系与关联原则的互动
A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The addressee was illegible. A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The signature was clearly an imitation and the greeting was in the wrong place. A letter was awaiting Sherlock Holmes. The postman must have deposited it in the morning and the secretary the housekeeper must have taken it up in the afternoon.
在某些情况下, 当言者拟选用的前指 成分与先行成分之间缺乏常规关系 时, 仍可使用此前指成分, 因为言者 相信听者会依据关联原则 (principle of relevance) (Sperber and W ilson,1986)对前指词与先行词之间的 关系进行重构, 从而建立一种临时性 的常规关系表征或语篇心理模型。 如:

a. 有人等得不耐烦， b. Ø就骂起来了。 c. 鲁班看了Ø， d. Ø 就问：……。
Selection of referring expressions
1. 临近原则与一致原则的互动 根据临近原则(the principle of proximity), 在前指照应中, 前指词一般都倾向于指称 与其最为接近的、线性距离最短的先行 词, 因为临近先行词在语篇中显突性较高, 可及性程度较强。例如:
第十二讲
指称意义
Natural Language Processing, NLP) formal representation information extraction machine translation Summarization human-computer interfaces
Paul put his saxophone down. The reed was cracked.
直接回指与间接回指
We arrived in a village. It was large. We arrived in a village. The church was large.
常规关系(stereotypical relations)和非传递 性(non-transitivity)是间接前指照应关系的 两个重要限制因素 。 * We arrived in a village. The candelabras of the altar were remarkable only for being absent. * We came into a village. The stonework, of Roman origin, supported an entire structure.

There’s a cat and a dog in the yard. The cat is eating a mouse. Decontextualized（语境弱化 ）
百科语境与可及性的互动 John was arrested by Mike yesterday; he had just stolen a wallet.
Every farmer who owns a donkey, beats it.
有定名词短语回指（Definite noun phrase anaphora） John was run over by a truck. When he woke up, the nurses were nice to him. 零形回指 (zero/null anaphora) There are two roads to eternity, a straight and narrow, and a broad and crooked.
[Mary] went to the cinema on Thursday. She didn’t like the film. Anaphora; anaphor; antecedent; anaphoric form; referring expression; endophora; exophora; cataphora; Cohesion; coherence; co-referential; On his arrival in the capital, the Secretary of State declared support for the government.
加重音是一种较为特殊的物理语 境调节手段, 加重音的前指形式 可促使听者认为是在指称一个新 的语篇实体(Dahan et al. ,2002: 293), 从而降低了原所指的可及 性, 显凸了语篇中的新所指。
语言语境与可及性的互动 The mother picked up the baby. She had been ironing all afternoon. 此句中的“the mother”显然占据了话题地位, 因此可选择“she”这样的代词来指称先行词 “the mother”。 然而, 篇章话题并非在任何情况下都容易确立, 如: Jenny put the cup on the plate and broke it.
回指类型
代词回指（Pronominal anaphora） 句子回指（Sentential anaphora） Last week, we went out to the lake near my cottage. It was a lot of fun. 约束回指（bound anaphora） 约束回指（有时也称约束变项回指, bound variable anaphora) 是当先行名词短语被量化 时出现的回指现象。如下列所示： (1.3) No one would put the blame on himself.
Jenny went window shopping yesterday and spotted a nice cup. She wanted to buy it, but she had no money with her. Nevertheless, she knew she would be shopping the following day, so she would be able to buy the cup then. The following day, she went to the shop and bought the coveted cup. However, once back home and in her kitchen, she put the cup on a plate and broke it. . .
Definition
Reinhart (1999) claims that: “The term anaphora is used most commonly in theoretical linguistics to denote any case where two nominal expressions are assigned the same referential value or range.”
一致原则, 即如果某一所指相对于该语篇 域而成为主题时, 在重述时应尽量保持其 主题地位不变 。 Penrod was doing something very unusual and rare, something almost never accomplished except by colored people or by a boy in school on a spring day; he was doing really nothing at all. He was merely a state of being.
The art of living does not consist in preserving and clinging to a particular mood, of “happiness”, but in allowing happiness to change its form without being disappointed by the change; for happiness, like a child must be allowed to grow up. (引自刘宓庆, 1998: 462)

物理语境与可及性的互动 物理语境指的是交际的具体场合和现场 的物理环境, 可以表现为动作、表情、 物体、声音、气味等等。在前指选择中, 它可以和可及性之间产生互动作用。请 看下例: If John talks to some partygoers, the CH ILDREN will laugh at him. (引自 Krahmer and Van Deemter, 1998:364)
One noun phrase depends for its interpretation on the other noun phrase. Another definition is the following from Carter (1987). According to this dBaidu Nhomakorabeafinition, anaphora is “(...) the special case of cohesion where the meaning (sense and/or reference) of one item in a cohesive relationship (the anaphor) is, in isolation, somehow vague or incomplete, and can only properly be interpreted by considering the meanings of the other item(s) in the relationship (the antecedents).”
We arrived in a village. The church was open. The candelabras of the altar were remarkable only for being absent. We came into a village. The walls revealed a rich past. The stonework, of Roman origin, supported an entire structure.
A man was quietly walking down the street, when he was joined by another man. The man said:. . . (引自 Jaszczolt, 2002: 840)
2. 语境与可及性的互动 a. There’s a cat in the yard. It’s eating a mouse. b. There’s a cat in the yard. # The cat is eating a mouse. (引自 Epstein, 2002: 340)