当代语法概论答案

合集下载

现代汉语语法课后习题答案-精选文档

同功能，就不便于说明句子应该怎样组织和不应该怎样组织，不利于说明句子
的正误。如“球队获得了冠军，队员们都感到十分荣誉。”这个句子中“荣誉” 是名词，这儿误用为形容词了，改为“光荣”才与动词“感到”搭配得拢。如果不划分词类，怎么说明用词是否符合规律呢?
11
现代汉语课件
华北科技学院文法系
汉语词类的划分标准有三，主要标准是词的语法功能，次要标准是词的形态和词的概括意义。
语法学里的词法和句法各有研究范围。词法以词为研究对象，研究词的内部结构、词的形态变化和词的语法分类。例如语素构成词的类型有哪几种，词形变化的方式及其表示的意义有哪些，词能分多少类，
每类词以至每个词有哪些功能或用法，等等。
句法以短语和句子为研究对象，研究语句结构的类型
和规则。例如短语、句子的结构层次如何，每层中各组成
现代汉语课件
华北科技学院文法系
8
六、举例说明一般的句法成分是如何配对的。
一般句法成分有八个。每—个成分都是在同一层次上跟另一成分发生直接关系，因而配成一对，即：
主语——谓语：
动语——宾语：
差距‖很大
学好｜本领
定语——定语中心语：（春节）前夕状语——状语中心语：〔明显〕回落这两例中，用中心词分析法分析出的主语是一个词
（名词），谓语也只是一个词（动词）；用层次分析法分
析出的主语则是一个短语（名词性短语），谓语也是一个短语（动词性短语）。
现代汉语课件
华北科技学院文法系 9
第五章语法
思考和练习二
一、讲语法、分析句子的结构不使用词类名称行不行？试举出例句说明划分词类的可能性和必要性。
为了认识、分析、说明语句的语法结构，有必要对结构中的各种用法不同的词加以分类，把用法相同的许多词用一个概括的类别名称来称说。要不然，就要把用法相同的词一个个列举出来，这样就难于认识、说明结构的异同及其

当代语法学教程8第八章语音与语法

数词、量词不受“共享范畴成员资格的数目限制”
汉语的违反 a. 买[DP 碗酒] 买 -碗酒 b. 买[DP 两碗汤] 买 -两 -碗汤汉语黏附组的组成（初步的） a. 每一个有描写内容的词属于一个独立的黏附组 b. 规则：附缀词或左向或右向依附于毗邻黏附组
2019/3/3
当代语法学教程
7
或左或右的示例
汉语的功能范畴可以左向依附 [C买两碗][C汤] 功能范畴也可以右向依附 [C买][C 两碗汤]
2019/3/3
当代语法学教程
8
问题：有些功能范畴只能左向依附
语气词： “干【什么呀】你？” 【我呀】最喜欢语法学。方位词【桌子上】放着两本书量词【吃个】荔枝结构助词我的爸爸
当代语法学教程
17
目的性连谓句
2019/3/3
当代语法学教程
18
三、移位高度
太重移不高他打牢了基础张三关严了窗户
借助“把”相助他把基础打牢了张三把窗户关严了
2019/3/3
*他打牢固了基础 *张三关严实了窗户
他把基础打牢固了张三把窗户关严实了
19
当代语法学教程
2019/3/3
2019/3/3
当代语法学教程
9
汉语黏附组的组成（修正的）
a．每一个有描写内容的词(content word / lexical category)属于一个独立的黏附组； b. 规则：功能范畴可以左向依附于毗邻黏附组，而轻声的功能范畴则强制性左向依附于毗邻黏附组。功能范畴的右向依附跟左向或右向成分的语用特征及左向成分的韵律特征等有关。
短语移位
2019/3/3

现代英语语法题库及答案

现代英语语法题库及答案1. 选择正确的动词形式填空：a. She _______ (to be) a doctor since 2010.b. They _______ (study) English for three years beforethey moved to the UK.答案：a. has been b. had been studying2. 用适当的连词填空：a. I will go to the party ______ I finish my work.b. ______ you are tired, you should take a rest.答案：a. if b. If3. 选择正确的时态填空：a. By the time we arrived, the movie ______ already ______.b. I ______ (not see) the film yet.答案：a. had started b. haven't seen4. 用适当的疑问词填空：a. _______ did you go on your last vacation?b. _______ is the nearest train station?答案：a. Where b. Where5. 选择正确的被动语态形式填空：a. The letter _______ (write) by a famous author.b. The problem _______ (solve) by the team.答案：a. was written b. was solved6. 用适当的不定式或动名词填空：a. She prefers _______ to _______.b. I can't stand _______.答案：a. swimming to running b. waiting7. 选择正确的冠词填空：a. _______ doctor told me to rest.b. _______ United States is a big country.答案：a. The b. The8. 用适当的形容词填空：a. She is _______ (good) at math than her brother.b. This is the _______ (big) room in the house.答案：a. better b. biggest9. 选择正确的副词填空：a. She sings _______ beautifully.b. He speaks English _______.答案：a. very b. fluently10. 用适当的名词填空：a. The _______ of the building is impressive.b. The _______ of the book is missing.答案：a. architecture b. cover11. 选择正确的代词填空：a. I have two cats, _______ are very friendly.b. _______ of the students have passed the test.答案：a. both b. None12. 用适当的关系代词填空：a. The man _______ I saw at the airport was a famous actor.b. The book _______ I read last night was very interesting.答案：a. whom b. that13. 选择正确的介词填空：a. She is interested _______ music.b. The cat is _______ the box.答案：a. in b. in14. 用适当的数词填空：a. There are _______ days in a week.b. _______ is the first month of the year.答案：a. seven b. January15. 选择正确的条件句形式填空：a. If I _______ (have) enough money, I would buy a newcar.b. _______ (be) careful or you will fall.答案：a. had b. Be请注意，这些题目和答案仅供学习和练习使用，实际的英语语法题库可能会包含更多复杂和多样化的题目。

全国自考语言学概论(语法)模拟试卷2(题后含答案及解析)

全国自考语言学概论（语法）模拟试卷2(题后含答案及解析)全部题型 3. 名词解释 4. 简答题 6. 论述题7. 填空题名词解释1．语法正确答案：语法：是语言中关于词的构成、变化和词构成词组和句子的规则。

简单说就是语言的习惯和规则。

或者说组词造句的规则。

涉及知识点：语法2．历时语法正确答案：历时语法：指的是从语法发展变化角度纵向地、动态地研究语法，研究的重点是某些语法现象在特定时间过程中产生和消失的原因和规律。

涉及知识点：语法3．共时语法正确答案：共时语法：指的是从某一时期存在的语法现象横向地、静态地研究语法，研究的重点是某一语言在特定时间范围内的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。

涉及知识点：语法4．普遍语法正确答案：普遍语法：指的是对人类语言的语法共性的研究，其意义在于发现人类语言中共同的语法机制。

涉及知识点：语法5．个别语法正确答案：个别语法：指的是对个别语言语法的研究，它既包括研究一种语言的语法系统，又包括研究一种语言与其他语言不同的语法特点，其意义在于发现各种语言独特的语法现象。

涉及知识点：语法6．组合规则正确答案：组合规则：指就所有语法成分(小到语素和词，大到词组和句子)之间的关系而言，从线性的不同位置看都是相互如何搭配的关系。

涉及知识点：语法7．聚合规则正确答案：聚合规则：指从线性的某个位置看都是相互能不能替换出现的关系。

涉及知识点：语法8．语法形式正确答案：语法形式：是能体现语法意义的形式。

涉及知识点：语法9．语法意义正确答案：语法意义：是语法法形式所体现的意义。

涉及知识点：语法10．向心词组正确答案：向心词组：指整个词组的功能相当于词组中心语功能的词组，如偏正词组的功能与中心语相同，例如“木头房子”等于“房子”，“仔细看”等于“看”，就是向心词组；还有动宾词组、动补词组、联合词组等也是向心词组。

涉及知识点：语法11．离心词组正确答案：离心词组：指整个词组的功能不等于词组中任何成分的功能的词组，如汉语的“的”字词组，还有主谓词组、介词词组等也是离心词组。

现代英语语法课后习题答案

现代英语语法课后习题答案现代英语语法课后习题答案在学习现代英语语法的过程中，课后习题是巩固知识的重要环节。

通过解答习题，可以加深对语法规则的理解，提高语言运用能力。

下面是一些常见的现代英语语法习题及其答案，供大家参考。

一、名词和代词1. 根据句子中的名词或代词的单复数形式填空。

a) She has two __________. (child)b) The __________ are playing in the park. (boy)c) I saw a __________ on the street. (dog)d) Could you pass me the __________? (knife)e) __________ is waiting for you outside. (Somebody)答案：a) childrenb) boysc) dogd) knifee) Somebody2. 选择适当的代词填空。

a) __________ is my book. (This/These)b) __________ are my friends. (This/These)c) I saw __________ at the party. (her/she)d) Can you give __________ a hand? (me/I)e) __________ is a beautiful day. (It/This)答案：a) Thisb) Thesec) herd) mee) It二、动词时态和语态1. 根据句子的时态和语态，选择正确的动词形式。

a) They __________ (play/played) basketball yesterday.b) The cake __________ (is/was) baked by my mother.c) He __________ (is/was) reading a book when I called him.d) We __________ (have/had) dinner at a restaurant last night.e) The letter __________ (has/had) been sent by the secretary. 答案：a) playedb) wasc) wasd) hade) had been2. 选择适当的时态和语态填空。

现代英语语言学导论课后答案温宏社主编

现代英语语言学导论课后答案温宏社主编1、Now people can _______ with their friends far away by e-mail, cellphone or letter. [单选题] *A. keep onB. keep in touch(正确答案)C. keep upD. keep off2、36．The students will go to the Summer Palace if it __________ tomorrow. [单选题] * A．won’t rainB．isn’t rainingC．doesn’t rain (正确答案)D．isn’t rain3、She serves as a secretary in a university. [单选题] *A. 为…服务B. 担任…职务(正确答案)C. 竞争…服务D. 申请…职务4、I like booking tickets online，because it is _______. [单选题] *A. boringB. confidentC. convenient(正确答案)D. expensive5、It is reported（）three people were badly injured in the traffic accident. [单选题] *A. whichB. that(正确答案)C.whileD.what6、______this story, and you will realize that not everything can be bought with money. [单选题] *A. ReadingB. ReadC. To readD.Being read(正确答案)7、I_____you that I had made the right decision. [单选题] *A.ensuredB.insuredC.assured(正确答案)D.for sure8、—Are these your sheep? [单选题] *A）on grass at the foot of the hill.(正确答案)B. feedC.is fedD. is feeding9、Sometimes only（）10 out of 500 or more candidates succeed in passing all the tests. [单选题] *A. as many asB. as few as(正确答案)C. as much asD. as little as10、The boy’s mother always _______ him a story before he goes to bed. [单选题] *A. saysB. speaksC. tells(正确答案)D. talks11、Mary wanted to travel around the world all by herself, but her parents did not _______ her to do so. [单选题] *A. forbidB. allowC. follow(正确答案)D. ask12、--Do you have a _______?--Yes, I _______ at a clothes store. [单选题] *A. work; workB. work; jobC. job; jobD. job; work(正确答案)13、Our school is beautiful. How about _______? [单选题] *A. theirs(正确答案)B. theirC. theyD. them14、( ) .Would you please ______me the gifts from your friends? [单选题] *A.to showB. showingC. show(正确答案)D. shown15、I _____ of her since she left school three years ago. [单选题] *A. didn’t hearB. haven’t heard(正确答案)C. was not hearingD. shall not heard16、These apples smell _____ and taste ______. [单选题] *A. well; wellB. good; good(正确答案)C. well; goodD. good; well17、_______ after dinner is good for our health. [单选题] *A. WalksB. Walking(正确答案)C. WalkedD. Walk18、69．Online shopping is easy, but ________ in the supermarket usually ________ a lot of time. [单选题] *A．shop; takesB．shopping; takeC．shop; takeD．shopping; takes(正确答案)19、44．—Hi, Lucy. You ________ very beautiful in the new dress today.—Thank you very much. [单选题] *A．look(正确答案)B．watchC．look atD．see20、He was very excited to read the news _____ Mo Yan had won the Nobel Prize for literature [单选题] *A. whichB. whatC. howD. that(正确答案)21、-We’ve spent too much money recently–well,it isn’t surprising. Our friend and relatives_______around all the time [单选题] *ingB. had comeC. were comingD have been coming(正确答案)22、He _______ maths. [单选题] *A. does well in(正确答案)B. good atC. is well inD. does well at23、I walked too much yesterday and （）are still aching now. [单选题] *A. my leg's musclesB. my leg muscles(正确答案)C. my muscles' of legD. my legs' muscles24、81．Some birds are flying ________ the lake. What a beautiful picture! [单选题] *A．forB．underC．inD．above(正确答案)25、The notice put _______ on the wall says “No Smoking”. [单选题] *A. up(正确答案)B. offC. awayD. out26、41．—________ do you take?—Small, please. [单选题] *A．What size(正确答案)B．What colourC．How manyD．How much27、Just use this room for the time being ,and we’ll offer you a larger one _______it becomes available [单选题] *A. as soon as(正确答案)B unless .C as far asD until28、His mother’s _______ was a great blow to him. [单选题] *A. diedB. deadC. death(正确答案)D. die29、Jim is a(n) _______. He is very careful and likes to work with numbers. [单选题] *A. secretaryB. tour guideC. accountant(正确答案)D. English teacher30、I _______ to the tape yesterday evening. [单选题] *A. lookB. listenC. listened(正确答案)D. hear。

当代英语语法概论

当代英语语法概论李学平潘欢怀英语的词汇地位可以有各种的划分方法。

通常可分出“庄严语”、“正式语”、“中性语”、“非正式语”、“俚语”等。

从使用方式看，可分为“书面语”和“口语”。

从语体看，可分为“正式语体”和“非正式语体”。

从使用者的态度看，可分为“客气用语”和“随便用语”等。

一般说来，书面语、正式语体以及客气用语的语法规则较严格、复杂；口语、非正式语体以及随便用语的语法规则较随便、简单。

主语和主补之间、宾语和宾补之间有数的一致问题。

由于他们所指的是同一事物，所以在数上一致是符合规则的。

1)Heart attack is his chief trouble.2)I consider John and Mary my good friends.但他们有时也并不一致。

3)Frequent heart attacks are his chief trouble.4)I consider John and Mary my good company.尽管3）句中主语与主补之间、4）句中宾语和宾补之间在数的方面并不一致，似不符合规则，但由于这两句所表达的内容符合实际，所以可以算是正确的。

P178代词的性、数、人称方面的一致关系存在于主语和以反身代词充当的宾语之间；也存在于不定代词充当主语和用以替代它的代词之间。

He saw himself in the mirror.He hurt himself.不能说：He saw themselves in the mirror.He hurt themselves.不定代词充当主语时，问题比较复杂。

根据传统条例，用以指代不定代词的代词是第三人称的阳性单数。

Everybody thinks he ought to make his own decision. 如果说话是女性场合中，就可以用阴性代词为Everybody的替代词。

例如：Everybody thinks she ought to make her own decision.在男女混合的场合中，就有了实际问题。

现代汉语语法练习题答案

现代汉语语法练习题答案一、单项选择题1.A2.D3.C4.B5.B6.C7.D8.D9.A 10.C11.C 12.B 13.C 14.A 15.D 16.B 17.D 18.A 19.A 20.D21.C 22.C 23.D 24.C 25.A 26.A 27.D 28.B 29.A 30.C31.A 32.B 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.B 37.B 38.B 39.C二、多项选择题1.AC2.ABC3.ABC4.ACDE5.AB6.BC7.ABCDE8.ABC9.AD 10.ADE11.BCDE 12.ABC 13.ABCD 14.ABCD 15.ABCD16.ABC 17.ABC 18.ABCD 19.ABDE 20.ABE21.ABC 22.ABE 23.DE 24.AD 25.AE三、判断题1．（1）划分词类须以词的语法功能为依据。

（2）副词属于实词。

（3）名词能受数量词的修饰。

（4）数词表示数目多少或表示次序。

（5）代词能代替几乎所有的实词。

（6）现代汉语中有结构助词“的”和语气词“的”。

（7）现代汉语中有动态助词“了”和语气词“了”。

（8）层次分析要切分到词。

（9）主语有施事、受事和中性三类。

（10）谓词和谓词性词语也可以作宾语。

（11）主语也可以由谓词或谓词性词语充当。

（12）有的动词可以带两个宾语。

（13）语气因素不会影响句型。

（14）扩展不会影响句型。

（15）省略不会影响句型。

（16）非主谓句是由单个的词或主谓短语以外的其他短语构成的句子。

（17）主谓句有动词谓语句、形容词谓语句、名词谓语句和主谓谓语句。

（18）复句是由两个或两个以上的分句组成的句子。

（19）假设、条件复句是偏正复句。

（20）让步复句不是转折复句。

（21）“把”字句的谓语动词不能是单个动词。

2．（1）动态助词（2）副词（3）副词（4）趋向动词（5）动态助词（6）动态助词（7）语气词（8）形容词（9）时间名词（10）程度副词（11）方位词（12）区别词（13）动词（14）副词（15）副词（16）形容词（17）连词（18）副词（19）形容词（20）名词1（21）动词（22）量词（23）形容词（24）区别词（25）形容词（26）副词（27）动词（28）名词（29）动词（30）副词（31）区别词（32）动词（33）动词（34）名词（35）动词（36）动词（37）连词（38）形容词（39）形容词（40）动词（41）动词（42）副词（43）名词（44）形容词（45）副词（46）动词（47）动词（48）数词（49）形容词（50）名词（51）副词（52）方位词（53）动词（54）副词（55）副词（56）介词（57）介词（58）名词（59）名词（60）形容词（61）形容词（62）名词（63）副词（64）形容词（65）副词（66）副词（67）副词（68）副词（69）副词（70）副词（71）副词（72）副词（73）副词（74）形容词（75）形容词（76）副词（77）动词（78）名词（79）动词（80）连词（81）动词（82）动词（83）形容词（84）名词（85）形容词（86）副词（87）代词（88）动词（89）形容词（90）副词（91）副词（92）代词（93）代词（94）副词（95）形容词（96）形容词（97）名词（98）副词（99）副词（100）动词（101）形容词（102）形容词（103）形容词（104）副词（105）名词（106）方位词（107）动词（108）形容词（109）副词（110）副词四、分析题1．2．（略）3．（1）主谓句，动词谓语句。

现代汉语-语法部分习题及答案

语法部分1一、填空1.从语气角度看，句子可分为四类，例如“我爱我的红领巾。

”是，“这部小说真好看！”是，“你快去帮忙吧！”是，“他为什么不来通知我呢？”是。

2.单句可分、两大类，例如“1949年春天的一个早晨”是句，“我马上就去办”是句。

3.主谓句的下位句型包括、和三类。

例如“鲁迅是一个作家”是句，“鲁迅非常伟大”是句，“鲁迅绍兴人”是句。

4.动词性谓语句包括四种下位句型，例如“这部电影我去年就看过了”是句，“他什么情况都不清楚”是句，“你把房间打扫干净了吗”是句，“我去帮他推一下”是句。

5.从语义关系看，宾语可分、和三类，例如“来了一个人”，“讨论问题”，“是张同志”分别是、、宾语。

6.主谓句的成份包括、、和四种。

如“据报道，你救助过的那个学生今年考上大学了”，这个句子的主语是，谓语是，独立语是。

7.复句是由按一定的构成的。

复句的基本类型有、、、、、、、八种。

例如“如果不是医生及时抢救，他恐“朋系。

9.15.“学校23.择1.咬死了他这本C.让步D.递进四、分析1.从语气和结构的角度给下列句子分类1）他去年秋天写的那部小说得了一等奖2他去年秋天写了一部小说人人都指导3）去年秋天他花了两个星期写了本小说4我不知道他为什么那样热衷于写小说5）人为什么天天都要去太湖边钓鱼呢6）他昨天钓的那条鱼起码有五斤7）你明天带我一块儿去钓鱼吧（8）看样子，他会把池塘里的鱼钓干净2.比较下列各组句子意义上的差别1）他好几天没有吃饭了。

——他好几天没有吃米饭了。

（2）他连喊带叫，走进教室。

——他连喊带叫，走近教室。

（3）这种食品据说能致癌。

——这种食品据说能治癌。

（4）我们这里年年干旱。

——我们这里连年干旱。

（5）小张会下围棋。

——小张会下围棋了。

（6）这个问题，我考虑得不成熟。

——这个问题，我没有考虑成熟。

（7）我们过几天去看你。

——我们过几天来看你。

（8）赶快拿酒去。

——赶快拿酒来。

（9）什么书他都看。

——他都看什么书。

现代汉语语法各类习题及答案

一、知识题一、语法这一术语有三种含义：语法规律、语法科学、语法教材。

二、语法结构的四级单位：词素、词、短语、句。

3、语法分析有两种大体的方式：一是把大类切分成小类，如把词分成名词、动词、形容词等；一是把整体切分成部份，如把句子分成主语、谓语等。

4、语法单位与语法单位的关系，如主谓关系、述宾关系等；语法单位与客观对象的关系，如施事、受事等。

语法单位与说话人之间的关系，如陈述、疑问等。

五、词类指的是词在语言结构中表现出来的类别。

对汉语的词进行分类，须以词的语法功能为依据。

六、词的语法功能，是指词的组合能力。

表现为：1）能充当什么句法结组成份，不能充当什么句法结组成份。

2）能跟什么词组合，不能跟什么词组合，组合后发生什么样关系。

7、词的分类是逐级进行的。

第一依照词可否作句法结组成份，能够把词分为实词和虚词两大类。

能单独充当句法结组成份的是实词，不能单独充当句法结组成份的是虚词。

1）依照组合能力的不同，能够把实词分为体词、谓词、加词三类。

①体词包括名词、数词和量词；②谓词包括动词和形容词；③加词包括区别词和副词。

另外还有代替以上各类实词的代词。

2）虚词在句法结构中起附着或连接作用。

包括介词、连词、助词、语气词。

3）另外，还有叹词和拟声词，都能独立成句，但在句法结构中通常不能跟其他词发生关系，是两个特殊的词类。

[共14个小词类].八、从结构的内部关系分析，汉语短语的大体类型有五种：主谓短语、述宾短语、述补短语、偏正短语、联合短语。

还有连动短语、兼语短语和同位短语。

九、从句法的结构功能分类，一样能够分为体词性句法结构、谓词性句法结构和加词性句法结构三类。

1）体词性句法结构：要紧用作主语、宾语。

包括：a带有定语的偏正短语、b由各类体词组成的联合短语、c同位短语、d“的”字短语。

2）谓词性句法结构要紧用作谓语，功能与谓语相当。

包括：a述宾短语和述补短语，b连动短语和兼语短语c动词、形容词组成的联合短语，d带有状语的偏正短语，e主谓短语一样也属于谓词性结构。

现代汉语语法知识体系(答案)

一、词类词分虚词、实词两类。

实词有：名词、动词、形容词、代词、数词、量词、虚词有：副词、介词、连词、助词、叹词、拟声词（一）实词1、名词：表示人和事物的名称的实词。

如："黄瓜、白菜、拖拉机、计算机"。

表示专用名称的叫做"专用名词"，如"云南、上海、李白、白居易"。

表示抽象事物的名称的叫做"抽象名词"，如"范畴、思想、质量、品德、友谊、方法"。

表示方位的叫做"方位名词"，如"上""下""左""右""前""后""中""东""西""南""北""前面""后边""东边""南面""中间"等。

2、动词：动词表示人或事物的动作、行为、发展、变化。

有的动词表示一般的动作，如：来、去、说、走、跑、学习、起飞、审查、认识等。

有的动词表示心理活动，如"想、重视、注重、尊敬、了解、相信、佩服、惦念"等，这样的动词前面往往可以加上"很、十分"。

有的动词表示能够、愿意这些意思，叫做"能愿动词"，它们是"能、要、应、肯、敢、得（děi）、能够、应该、应当、愿意、可以、可能、必须"，这些能愿动词常常用在一般的动词前面，如"得去、能够做、可以考虑、愿意学习、应该说明、可能发展"。

有的动词表示使令：使、让、派、请、叫、要求、命令、推举、允许、鼓动、鼓励。

还有一些动词表示趋向，叫做"趋向动词"，如"来、去、上、下、进、出、上来、上去、下来、下去、过来、过去、起，它们往往用在一般动词后面表示趋向，如"跳起来、走下去、抬上来、跑过去"。

语法思考题参考答案（精）

语法思考题参考答案第一节1、语法的广义和狭义、主观性和客观性各表现在哪些方面？“语法”这个术语，实际上有两个方面的四种含义。

首先，语法是语言的结构规律，是存在于语言深层的客观规律和变化规则。

这种规律是不以人们的主观意志为转移的，它随着语言的产生而产生，发展而发展。

其次，语法又可以指语法学和语法书。

语法学是研究语言结构规律的科学，是人们对客观的语法规律的主观认识和说明。

语法书是语法研究成果的记录，因而也属于语法学的范围。

比较而言，上述前一种含义具有客观性，后一种含义具有主观性。

两者的关系是，客观的现象、规律是基础，主观认识必须以客观事实作为依据；主观的认识是一门科学，客观事实必须通过主观活动而得到提炼、归纳和整理。

此外，国外有人将语法用在更大的范围上，认为语法就是语言的法则和规律；语法不但包括词语的结构关系和变化规律，而且还包括语音、词汇的结构关系和变化规则，这就是广义的语法。

同样，广义的语法也可以分为客观和主观两个方面。

在广义语法中，一般所说的语法，即狭义的语法被叫做句法；而狭义语法中的句法仅仅是同词法相对的短语和句子的结构规则和变化规律。

2、从研究方法、理论背景和研究对象这三个角度着眼，语法学应该怎样分类？从研究者采用的方法看，语法可以分为比较语法和描写语法。

比较语法又称历史比较语法，主要指的是亲属关系语言之间的比较，尤其是比较印欧语系内部各亲属语言之间的关系。

描写语法重在研究某一语言在发展过程中一定时期的语法构造，主要是对语言体系作断面的、静态的客观描写。

描写语法通过详尽仔细的描写和分析，把人们实际使用的语言的语法构造非常清楚地刻画了出来。

2、从研究者的理论背景看，有传统语法、结构主义语法和转换生成语法等。

传统语法主要指十八世纪以来直到当前中学教科书中所使用的一些术语、概念、规则和理论。

结构主义语法强调语言结构中成分之间的对应关系，重视语法体系的系统性和严密性，对于语法单位的分类主张以形式标志和功能分布为依据，反对从意义出发。

当代语言学导论课文重点重点词汇考试内容课后习题答案

1.Human superiority lies in his unique endowment天赋—the ability to talk, or rather, tocommunicate by means of language.nguage is a vehicle of power, for control, for creation. And for change.3.The study of human language is called linguistics.nguage is the system of human communication which consists of the structuredarrangement of sounds(or their written representation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences, utterances.5.Varieties of language: Any particular language is in essence a set of varieties. There are localvarieties区域变体–dialects and accents(the former differ from each other in pronunciation, vocabulary, and even grammar; the latter only in pronunciation ), social varieties—sociolects 社会方言(=social dialects , used by people of different classes, ages, or sexes ), historical varieties—registers语域(e.g. formal English, scientific English), and even individual varieties—idiolects个人语言. Usually a language has an officially declared or generally considered standard dialect(e.g. Putonghua in China, General American in the US)6.Prescriptivism is the view that one variety of language has an inherently higher value thanothers.7.Descriptivism is the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist. Usages ofdifferent varieties should be observed and recorded instead of being judged with some imposed norms.8.Plato’s problem: How can every human being develop a rich system of linguistic knowledgeon the basis of limited and fragmentary empirical evidence?9.Plato held that there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man tofollow in expressing his ideas.10.Aristotle argued that knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement ofthe speakers of a given language.11.In ancient China, Xun Zi reasoned that a name was accepted through public agreement, andthe appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention.12.According to Chomsky, knowledge of language is the result of interaction of UG and laterexperience.13.(Ferdinand de) Saussure advocated the diversion of the focus of linguistic study fromdiachronic to synchronic.14.Chomsky’s epistemology of the knowledge of language foes as follows:1)Every human being has the language competence能力, because he has the inborn UGwhich other species lack.2)UG is the initial state of the human language faculty语言器官/机制which alone cannotenable a human baby to speak. A baby needs to be exposed to the linguistic environment of a certain language and accumulate experience.3)Due to the effect of later experience, the baby’s mind develops from the initial state intothe steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a specific human language.15.Behaviorists’ or empiricists’ opinions are identical 统一的，同一的with Aristotle’s.16.Connectionism/ emergentism argues that the mental neural mechanisms responsible forboth lexical and grammatical processing are not unique to language.17.diachronic: focus on the comparison between languages and the exploration of the historicalchange and variation of some ancient languages./ of, relating to, or dealing with phenomena (as of language or culture) as they occur or change over a period of time18.synchronic: research of the facts of language agreed upon or shared by he members oflanguage community at a given point in time./ concerned with events existing in a limited time period and ignoring historical antecedents19.Galilean thesis ”nature is perfect”20.Fossilization is a process in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part ofthe way a person speaks a second language.21.Three adequacies:observational adequacydescriptive adequacyexplanatory adequacy(provide a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.)22.A theory in science must not be pure speculation but testable at observational, descriptive,and explanatory levels.23.Science tells us that nature is a physical continuum连续体, which does not break itself intophysics, chemistry, psychology, linguistics…; these disciplines 学科are not facts but our decisions.24.Plato asserted that there was a”legislator” who gave the correct, natur al name toeverything, and languages belonged to states but not to individuals.25.J.G. Herder pointed out that babies’ cry is a sort of natural sounds , which could neverdevelop into a language.26.A cornerstone of science is Galilean’s intuition that nature is perfect.27.Sir William Johns first proposed that a language in South Asia be a relative of many Europeanlanguages .28.The origin of language as a topic was banned by the Linguistic Society of Paris founded in1866.29.In accordance with the three phases just mentioned, phonetics is divided into threesub-fields. Articulatory phonetics发音语音学studies speech production by the speech organs; acoustic phonetics声学语音学studies physical properties of speech sounds, the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer; and auditory phonetics听觉语音学studies the perception of speech sounds in the human auditory and cognitive system.30.A “sound”people say they produce is actually a combination of sounds called a syllable,which is often related to a chest pulse.31.The place of articulation refers to the point in the vocal tract at which the main closure ornarrowing is made so as to modify the flow of air from the chest to the mouth in producing a sound.32.The manner of articulation refers to the type of constriction收缩or movement that occursat any place of articulation.33.The production of different speech sounds through the use of these organs is known asarti culation.34.Vibration 颤动35.Adam’s apple area 喉结36.Consonants are sounds made by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing from whichair cannot escape without producing audible friction摩擦, and vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.37.Bilabial双唇音, formed by bringing the lips together , e. g. [ p ] , [ m] . Here the function oflips is somewhat complicated: they both can be regarded as the active and passivearticulat ors simultaneously.bi o-dental唇齿音, formed by the lower lip against the upper teeth, e . g. [ f] .39.Dental齿音, formed by placing the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth, e . g. [ð].40.Alveolar齿龈音, formed by placing the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge,e. g. [ t ] .41.Palatal腭音, formed by the front of the tongue against the hard palate, namely, the roof ofthe mouth, e . g. [ j] .42.Palato- alveolar腭龈音, formed midway between the places of articulation for palatals andalveolars: the blade ( and sometimes the tip) of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge, with a simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate , e. g.[ʃ] .43.Velar软腭音, formed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate, e. g. [ k] .44.Glottal声门音, formed by the vocal cords coming together t o cause a closure or friction, e .g.[ h] .45.Retrofle卷舌音, formed when the apex of the tongue is curled back in the direction of thehard palate, as heard in many Indian English accents.46.Uvular小舌音, formed by the back of the tongue against the uvula, as heard in some accentsof French.47.Pharyngeal咽音, formed in the pharynx, the part of the throat above the larynx. Specifically,the front wall of t he pharynx articulates with the back wall , as hear d in Arabic .ans in the vocal tract, such as the lips, teeth, or hard palate, are called articulators.49.Consonants are also classified according to the manner of articulation, concerning whichphoneticians tend to consider several factors .50.The first factor is the degree of the constriction of airflow. At least six main classes can bedistinguished in English:51.Plosive爆破音, formed by completely closing the air passage and suddenly removing theobstacle , so that the air escapes making an explosive sound, e. g. [ p] ,[ d] . It belongs toa broader category called “stop” which includes closures produced by air streams not fromthe lungs , as encountered in some southern African languages.52.Nasal鼻音, formed with the soft palate lowered, thus allowing air to resonate in the nose,e . g. [ m] .53.Affricate塞擦音, a consonant which starts as a plosive, but instead of ending with plosion,ends with a fricative made in the same place, e. g. [tʃ ] .54.Liquid流音, formed by some obstruction of the air stream in the mouth, which seems notenough to cause any real constrict ion or friction, e. g. [ l] , [ r ]. [ l] is cal led a lateral liquid, because in making it, an obstacle is placed in the middle of the mouth, leaving the air free to escape at one or both sides.55.Fricative擦音, formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point so that the air inescaping makes audible frication. e. g. [ f] , [ z] . Some fricatives are also cal led sibilants齿擦音, which are made with a groove- like structure in the front part of the tongue, producing a kind of hissing sound, e. g. [ s] , [ʃ] .56.Glide滑音, sometimes called semi -vowel because it is typically produced with the tonguemoving, or “gliding”, to or from the position of a nearby vowel, e.g. [ h] , [ w] .57.The second factor is voicing. Voice is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.58.The third factor is aspiration. This is the sound of air rushing through the vocal tract, usuallyfound after the release of plosive consonants in some situation.59.Different vowels result from changing the shape of the mouth; all of them are voicedcontinuous sounds.60.[i:] close vowels , [a:] open vowels, [e] semi-closed vowels, [ɔ:] semi-open vowels61.Four rounded vowels: [u:] [u] [ɔ:] [ɔ], they are all back vowels.62.[a:]is the only English back vowel that occurs without lip rounding.63.There is another interesting rule: all the long vowels( e.g. [i:] [u:])are tense vowels紧元音,and all the short vowels ([i] [u]) are lax vowels松元音.64.Every vowel constitutes a single syllable. The vowel can be a monophthong, a diphthong, oreven a triphthong that contains three distinctive qualities, e.g.[ai ə]. However, not every syllable contains a vowel. The second syllable of the word little[litl] has no vowel after the plosive [t] but a liquid [l].65.Phonemes have no meaning of themselves, but they are the smallest linguistic unit, whosechange will lead to the change of meaning. A phoneme is defined as the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.66.Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted of anotherwithout bring about a change of meaning.67.Phoneme用//; allophone用[]68.A phonetic property特性，特质that distinguishes phonemes from one another is called adistinctive feature.69.Phonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what theirphysical properties are, and how they are interpreted.70.Phonology, is a description of the sounds of a particular language and the rules governingthe distribution of those sounds. Furthermore, phonology is also concerned with the universal properties of natural language sound systems and aims at revealing the general principles of the sound patterns of all languages.71.Pitch is the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.72.There are two ways in which languages make use of pitch variations in speech.1)In languages such as English, French, and German, regular sequences of different pitchescharacterize stretches of speech between pauses and are known collectively as intonation. The differences of intonation may correlate with different types of utterances.2)In languages such as Chinese , Vietnamese, Thai, and Zulu, pitch differences help todistinguish one word from another and may be the only differentiating feature between two or more words whose composition is the same in terms of consonants and vowels.Pitch differences used in these ways are called tones and these languages are called tone languages.73.Stress, pitch, tone and intonation are also called suprasegmentals超切分音位because theyrelate to aspects of pronunciation that go beyond the production of individual segments.rynx喉: the beginning of the vocal tract, containing the vocal cords.75.Pharynx咽: the tube-like passage in the throat which connects the larynx to the upper partof the vocal tract.76.Vocal cords声带：two muscular folds in the larynx that vibrate as a source of sound.77.Soft palate 软腭：the backward continuation of the roof of the mouth, which can be loweredto let air pass through the nose.78.Hard palate 硬腭：the roof of the mouth79.Alveolar ridge 齿龈脊：the bony prominence behind the upper front teeth.80.Trachea 气管：the passage between lungs and larynx.81.Segment is the smallest unit that can be identified in continuous speech.82.A syllable cannot contain more than one vowels. Even if a diphthong or thiphthong iscontained, it is still a single vowel, pronounced within one chest pulse.83.Words are not the smallest unit of meaning. They are composed of smaller units of meaning,called morphemes. Morphemes are the minimal language units.Morphology deals with word structure. Many words are themselves morphemes, such as big and book. They cannot be broken into smaller units that in themselves carry meaning. We call them free morphemes—morphemes that can stand alone as a word. Many other words are created by joining together two morphemes, e.g. blackboard, in which the two morphemes black and board can be recognized as meaningful words by themselves. So they are also free morphemes .84.Another type of morpheme is the bound morpheme , which occurs only when attached toanother morpheme, such as -ly in happily and un- in unhappy.The function of an affix can be derivational派生的，衍生的or inflectional屈折的. A derivational morpheme is one that is added to a root to form a new word that differs, usually, in its part-of-speech词性classification. For example, when the suffix -ness is added to the adjective happy, the noun happiness is formed.85.Prefixes as derivational morphemes usually change the basic meaning of a word but do notchange its part- of-speech classification .（即系本来系动词就系动词）86.An inflectional morpheme indicates certain grammatical properties associated with nounsand verbs, such as gender , number , case, and tense. Unlike highly inflected languages such as Latin , English has very few inflectional morphemes. In English, the inflectional morphemes are all suffixes. The suffix -s, which indicates plurality in nouns as well as the third-person singular in verbs, is an inflectional morpheme ; the past tense suffix -ed, which is added to verbs, is another .87.According to Wilhelm von Humboldt , languages of the world can be classifiedmorphologically into three types: isolating, inflecting, and agglutinating.88.An isolating language is also called an analytic language or root language, in which all thewords are invariable. Chinese, Vietnamese and Samoan are typical cases. An inflecting language is also called a synthetic language or fusional language, in which grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words—typically by the use of inflectional endings which express several grammatical meanings at once. Latin, Greek, and Arabic are clear cases. An agglutinating language is also called agglutinativelanguage, in which a word typically consists of a neat linear sequence of morphemes, all clearly recognizable. Turkish, Finnish, Japanese, and Swahili are usual cases.pounding is a process that forms new words not by means of affixes but from two ormore independent words. Compounds are different from phrases in that they symbolize an integrated整体的concept.90.There are different semantic relationships within the morphemes comprising a compound.91.Idiomatic 惯用的，成语的expressions: metaphoric(e.g. I’m really tied up无法分身.)，allusive(e.g. the ruling party met its Waterloo 毁灭性的打击in the new election.), a majority are institutionalized.92.Morphology is the study of word-making and word-marking. On the one hand, morphologyexamines relationships between words and the ways in which these connections are indicated. On the other, morphology looks at how grammatical relationships between words are marked. Different languages focus on different word relationships, and they make use of different patterns of marking.93.The study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed, iscalled morphology.94.Words are not the most elemental sound-meaning units. The most elemental grammaticalunits in a language are morphemes.95.Bound morphemes like “a-”, “pre-”, “-ly”, “-ness”, which have only grammatical meanings,are limited in number, about 100 in English.pounds are different from phrases in that they symbolize an integrated concept.Phonologically, they have primary stress on the first word only, while individual words in phrases have independent primary stress .97.Modern linguistic research suggests that language is intrinsically 内在的，本质的less literalthan we have always assumed. It is abundant in idiomatic expressions .nguages of the world can be classified morphologically into three types: isolating,inflecting, and agglutinating.99.The tree relationship is non-linear but hierarchical.100.Family tree sequence次序—top-down; syntactic tree sequence—bottom-up.101.The bottom-up process in sentence production is called merging合并.102.A head of a phrase is the key word which determines the properties of the phrase.103.The I( inflectional morpheme) plays an essential role in merging an NP and a VP into a sentence.104.Besides a labeled tree-diagram, this hierarchically arranged structure with in a sentence can also be represented in the form of labeled bracketing.105.There are two groups of syntactical categories: lexical categories and functional categories.All the content words, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, belong to lexical categories ; on the other hand, any word or morpheme which has no descriptive content and which serves an essentially grammatical function belongs to a functional category. A functional category plays a role like glue in combining content words into phrases and phrases into a sentence .106.XP can be defined as the maximal projection headed by X, and X itself, i. e. the head, as the minimal projection.107.I is a category devised by Chomsky whose members include not only inflectionalmorphemes but also finite auxiliaries限定助动词( which are inflected for tense / agreement ) , and the infinitival particle to.108.When a constituent is made the topic of a sentence, it may be moved into a more prominent position at the front of the sentence. This process is called topicalization话题化—A device which marks sth as a topic by simply moving the topic to the front of the sentence, as in This book I can’t recommend.109.Syntax is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the relationship among their component parts.110.In the VP draw a tree, draw is the head of the phrase while a tree is the complement. 111.A phrase is the projection of the head. XP can be defined as the projection headed by X, X’ , as the intermediate projection, and X itself, i . e. the head , as the minimal projection. 112.According to X-bar theory, head X can either be a lexical category, such as nouns and verbs, or a functional category.113.In the skeleton骨架，框架of XP, SPEC stands for specifier and COMP stands for complement. SPEC and X’ are sisters. So are X and COMP.114.IP refers to inflectional phrase. I, a functional category, includes not only inflectional morphemes but also finite auxiliaries, and the infinitival particle to.115.CP refers to complementizer phrase and can be found in analysis of complex sentence as well as wh-questions and topicalization.116.When we put a sentence in out mind by reading or listening, our mind will immediately treat it as a set of meaning units, called propositions.117.An intransitive verb—1 NP—the subject(external argument); a simple transitive verb—2 NPs—subject(external argument) and object(internal argument); a ditransitive verb 双宾语动词---3 NPs—subject(EA), direct object and indirect object(IA); an unusual verb in English, rain, requires no NPs.118.NPs required by a verb are called its arguments论元.119.A verb very often permits some further phrases, which are optional. These optional phrases are adjuncts附加成分，修饰成分, which are expressed most often as prepositional phrases or adverbial phrases in English.120.Theta theory(orθ-theory)题元角色is concerned with assigning指定thematic roles（θ-role）论旨角色to the arguments of verbs.121.Theta-roles:1)Agent: instigator发起者of some action. E.g. John threw the ball.2)Theme: entity实体，实质undergoing the effect of some action. Often a theme isaccusative宾格(and can be called a patient as well), e.g. John hit the cat; however, it is nominative主格with a few verbs like fall, die, etc. e.g. The cat (accusative)died.3)Experiencer: entity experiencing some psychological state. E.g. John was happy.4)Benefactive: entity benefiting from some action. E.g. Mary bought some chocolate forJohn.5)Recipient: entity receiving some entity. E.g. John got Mary a present(patient).6)Instrument: means by which sth comes about. E.g. Joanna dug the garden with a spade.7)Locative: place in which sth is situated. E.g. John put the washing in the bin.8)Goal: entity towards which sth moves. E.g. Mary passed the plate to John.9)Source: entity from which sth moves. E.g. John returned from London.122.Theta theory enables us to reveal some semantic differences that are not reflected in the syntactic structure demonstrated by X-bar tree diagrams.123.As for verbs, the lexicon contains information about their transitivity, their argument structure , and the theta roles that can be assigned to their arguments.124.和动词最密切的是theme，及物动词的theme是object，不及物动词的theme是subject? 125.The output of the grammatical system consists of two levels of description: the phonetic description for the generated sentence to be spoken out ; the semantic description which logically represents the meaning the speaker would like to convey through uttering the sentence.126.Logicians have long been concerned with formulating representations for the semantic structure of sentences, or more correctly propositions. NPs required by a verb are called its arguments. A proposition comprises a predicate V and a set of arguments. In addition to its arguments , a verb very often permits some optional phrases which are called adjuncts. 127.The internal argument of a verb has to be realized inside the maximal projection of that verb.The external argument of a verb is not contained in the maximal projection of that verb .For example, in John [ (VP) buys books ] , John is the external argument and books is the internal argument of the verb buy.128.E ach verb may have none or one internal argument( s) . Each verb may have none, one or more internal argument(s).129.Each argument is assigned one and only one theta/ thematic role. Each theta/thematic role is assigned to one and only one argument.nguage is symbolic, but not all symbols belong to language. In addition to symbols, there are icons and indexes which also convey meaning. Picasso is an icon of modernism; smoke is an index of fire. Such relationships are beyond the reach of semantics. They are the research objects of a more general field called semiotics, which investigates the types of relationships that may exist between a sign and the object it represents . Semantics can be regarded as a part of this extensive effort, with its particular emphasis on linguistic meaning.Therefore, John I. Saeed, a contemporary authority in this field, proposes a more proper definition: semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language.nguage is the vehicle, and meaning is the cargo.132.Every argument has a theta role assigned from the predicate according to the theory.133.Semantic features are defined as a class of theoretical constructs developed in analogy to the distinctive features of phonology—they are considered to be the smallest semantic units for the description of linguistic expressions and their semantic relations.134.She was the only man in her cabinet.Man---hard, iron handy. The word man is used as a metaphor. When a word is used as a metaphor, it will not keep all the features of its conceptual meaning, but will highlight a certain associative property of its connotative meaning, according to Leech.135.Saussurean arbitrariness, which claims that the relationship between a linguistic sign( signifier) and its content ( signified) is arbitrary.136.According to Ogden and Richards, the “symbol” refers to the linguistic elements(word, sent ence, etc.), the”referent” refer s to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought”“reference” refers to concept or notion.Ogden& Richards’ Semantic Triangle137.Most signs have at least one normal, “common sense” meaning, called the sign’ denotaion, is shared among many people and is the most widely used meaning of the sign. But signs may also have many different ”subjective”meanings that arise from each individual’ personal experiences. These are called the connotations of the sign.138.Meaning falls into at l east two categories--denotative and connotative. A concept in an individual’s mind is mostly the connotative meaning, formed through one’s perception of some features of the object a sign refers to. The denotative meaning is not necessarily generated in such a process, but has long been an agreement among all the people in a community.139.Pierce’s“Semiotic Triangle”Charles S. Pierce is generally acknowledged as an important pioneer in the study of signs.Perception--the ongoing group of bodily processes by which human beings receive data about their environmentsExperience--the memory of previous perceptions and concepts, which is constantly being altered or “updated” by new experienceConvention--the constantly changing social “rules of meaning” that unify groups of people within their communication environments.140.Some semantic properties of the words we use to think and talk about the world are automatically captured by the resources of our human minds.141.All these dimensions of internalized semantic knowledge, namely a)synonymy同义,b)contradiction反义, c)entailment蕴含, d) presupposition前提, e) ambiguity,f)inclusive-exclusive distinction, g) metaphorical interpretation, h) infelicity不恰当, can beattributed to properties of I-meaning proposed by Chomsky ( 2000 ).142.The semantic properties of words are used to think and talk about the world in terms of the perspectives made available by the resources of the mind.143.I-meaning is the human genetic faculty in calculating the logic in meaning ( e. g.presupposition, entailment.. . ) .144.The real meaning in communication is contextual meaning. Without context, a sentence conveys only literal information.145.Words or expressions that have identical meanings are called synonyms.146.Words or phrases that have opposite meanings are called antonyms.147.When a word has two or more meanings that are at least vaguely related to each other, it is called a polysemy多义词. For example, “leaf” can refer to “a part of a tree” and also “a sheet of paper”.148.When words have a single phonetic form but two or more entirely different meanings, they are called homophones同音字，同音异形异义词. For example，“bank”can mean “a commercial lending institution” and ”a small cliff at the edge of a rive”.149.When words have two kinds of meanings: denotative and connotative. Denotative meaning is precise, literal, and object. You can find a word’s denotative from a dictionary.150.Connotative meaning is more variable, figurative比喻的, and subjective. It is whatever the word suggests or implies. Connotative meaning includes all the feelings, associations, and emotions that a word touches off in different people .151.The relation of entailment that holds between ”chase” and “follow” is based on properties of I-meaning.。

现代汉语语法课后习题答案（可编辑）

现代汉语语法思考和练习答案请选择节次第一节语法概说第二节词类上第三节词类下第四节短语第五节句法成分第六节句子的分类第七节常见的句法失误第八节复句第九节句群第十节标点符号第五章语法思考和练习一一语法学里的词法和句法各研究些什么语法学里的词法和句法各有研究范围词法以词为研究对象研究词的内部结构词的形态变化和词的语法分类例如语素构成词的类型有哪几种词形变化的方式及其表示的意义有哪些词能分多少类每类词以至每个词有哪些功能或用法等等句法以短语和句子为研究对象研究语句结构的类型和规则例如短语句子的结构层次如何每层中各组成成分之间有什么关系形成什么类型表示什么意义句子有什么语用条件等等二什么是语法体系对语法体系的分歧应采取什么态度语法体系有两个含义一个是指语法结构成分的组合规则和关系所构成的整体在这个意义上一种语言只能有一个客观的语法体系但是在语法学界由于众多语法研究者的认识不尽相同所使用的析句方法和术语也就不同对同一语法现象分析的结果和解释会出现分歧从而形成不同的语法体系这一含义的语法体系应该说成语法学体系不同的语法学体系都是为了帮助大家认识和运用好各种语法结构的它们往往大同小异各有长短因此学习的时候要细心观察拿它来同语言实体相印证采用符合事实的说法不能因体系分歧而否定学习语法的必要性和可能性语法学体系的分歧是人类认识规律决定的不可避免的只有通过对语法的深入研究才有可能逐步减少分歧我们有必要分清语法体系的两个含义知道通常说的语法体系往往是指语法学体系三举例说明语法的抽象性和稳固性语法的抽象性指语法不管词短语和句子的具体意义而只管其中的语法意义语法形式和规则例如牛太阳飞机春天经济势力这些词的词汇意义各不相同而语法形式和意义有共同点即指它们有常做主语宾语定语的功能能单独受数量短语修饰都有事物意义又如蓝蓝的天善良的愿望奔跑的羊群火车的速度一本书这些短语的具体意义不同但是语法不管这些只注意每个短语都是有修饰关系的偏正结构是定语性质不同的定中短语语法具有稳固性这是说许多语法规则经历千百年而不变旧的语法规则的变化和新的语法规则的产生都是比较缓慢的例如汉语表达语法意义的手段主要是利用语序和虚词从古到今都如此主谓结构中主语和谓语是一前一后直接组合的不用语法成分来连接但是主语后头停顿处有时可以出现语气词这些结构特点也是古今一致的又如在上古名词可以做谓语到了现代名词一般不能直接做谓语了这可以看出旧规则虽有变化但是变化很缓慢四为什么说研究语法要注意民族特点不同民族的语言既有共性又各有个性如果忽视民族语言的个性或特点就不能深入认识一种语言的语法结构规律例如对汉语要研究把字句和被字句不能只满足于说明哪是主语哪是谓语哪是状语等还要指出它的结构特点构成条件和所表示的语法意义还要了解把家回被他打这些说法的语用条件这样才能研究好掌握好汉语语法五谈谈四级语法单位的关系四级语法单位指的是语素词短语和句子语素词短语是没有句调的备用单位句子是有句调的运用单位说话至少得说一句一个语素可以单独成为一个单纯词也可以同别的语素构成合成词词是组成短语的备用单位短语是组成更大的短语的备用单位某些词和短语加上句调可以成句另一些词和短语不能加句调形成句子六举例说明一般的句法成分是如何配对的一般句法成分有八个每个成分都是在同一层次上跟另一成分发生直接关系因而配成一对即主语谓语差距‖很大动语宾语学好｜本领定语定语中心语春节前夕状语状语中心语〔明显〕回落这两例中用中心词分析法分析出的主语是一个词名词谓语也只是一个词动词用层次分析法分析出的主语则是一个短语名词性短语谓语也是一个短语动词性短语第五章语法思考和练习二一讲语法分析句子的结构不使用词类名称行不行试举出例句说明划分词类的可能性和必要性为了认识分析说明语句的语法结构有必要对结构中的各种用法不同的词加以分类把用法相同的许多词用一个概括的类别名称来称说要不然就要把用法相同的词一个个列举出来这样就难于认识说明结构的异同及其规律了词类是汉语里的客观存在各类词有不同的语法特点表现出不同的性质这就为划分词类提供了可能性例如瞎子摸鱼中瞎子鱼可以受指示代词的修饰而动词摸不行摸可以受副词不的修饰而名词不行这样根据词表现出的不同特点就可以把词分出不同的类来划分词类不但有可能性而且有必要性因为各种各样的句子多数是由词逐层组成的不划分词类就没有办法说明语句各种结构规律的差异和词的不同功能就不便于说明句子应该怎样组织和不应该怎样组织不利于说明句子的正误如球队获得了冠军队员们都感到十分荣誉这个句子中荣誉是名词这儿误用为形容词了改为光荣才与动词感到搭配得拢如果不划分词类怎么说明用词是否符合规律呢汉语词类的划分标准有三主要标准是词的语法功能次要标准是词的形态和词的概括意义语法功能包括⑪能不能充当句子成分对能够充当句子成分的实词应该进一步看能够充当哪些句子成分⑫词和词组合的能力指同哪些词组合用什么方式组合组合后的语法关系所谓词的形态既指构形形态例如动词形容词会有不同的重叠方式也指构词形态例如加子头等词缀组成名词所谓词的概括意义是指一类词的类别意义例如名词表人事物的名称二将下面句子的词划分开然后列一个实词简表把其中的实词分别填在简表里①春分｜刚刚｜过去清明｜即将｜到来这｜是｜科学｜的｜春天让｜我们｜张开｜双臂热烈｜地｜拥抱｜这｜个｜春天｜吧②你们｜在｜想要｜攀登｜科学｜顶峰｜之前务必｜把｜科学｜的｜初步｜知识｜研究｜透彻还｜没有｜充分｜领会｜前面｜的｜东西｜时就｜决｜不｜要｜动手｜搞｜以后｜的｜事情③秋天｜的后｜半夜月亮｜下去｜了太阳｜还｜没有｜出只｜剩下｜一｜片｜乌蓝｜的｜天除了｜夜游｜的｜东西什么｜都｜睡｜着｜了三给下列各词分别归类①热爱动词可爱形容词②答案名词答应动词③战争名词作战动词④非常副词平常形容词⑤青年名词年轻形容词⑥坚决形容词决心名词四爱恨希望等是动词经常受程度副词修饰笔直雪亮红彤彤绿油油等是形容词却不能受程度副词修饰为什么说前者是动词后者是形容词一般动词不能受程度副词的修饰但是爱恨希望等表示心理活动的动词有程度之别所以可以受程度副词修饰我们之所以判定这些是动词是因为这些词都能做谓语中心又能带宾语如爱祖国恨敌人等一般形容词可以受程度副词修饰但是笔直雪亮红彤彤绿油油等不受程度副词修饰因为这些词本身含有程度深的意思我们之所以判定它们为形容词是因为它们都可以作定语和谓语不能带宾语例如广笔直的大道眼睛雪亮等五举例说明我们与咱们你与您那与哪用法上有什么不同我们可以是包括式包括听话人一方也可以是排除式不包括听话人一方例如小李你是我的好朋友我们在一起很愉快包括式大哥你在这儿再等一会儿我们先走了排除式咱们只是包括式如小李你乘114次车我乘109次车咱们南京见你和您都是第二人称代词你是一般称呼没有尊敬色彩您是敬称表示尊敬如说妈妈您到哪儿去呀昨天跟你说过去上海那nà是指示代词表示远指如那是教室这是寝室哪nǎ是疑问代词表示疑问如哪是你的座位也可以用于虚指如哪天有空我们去看赛球又可以用于任指如这几盆花哪一盆都好六有人使用他她们怹tān这种用法规范吗他她们的使用原意是想表示男女兼有但是汉语他们并不表示性别它可以表示男性也可以兼表男女因此没必要写成他她们怹tān是北京方言第三人称单数他的敬称但是并未进入普通话因此这种说法从普通话来看并不规范八改正下列句子中的错误并说明理由①在工厂农村学校我见闻了许多英雄他们都在自己的岗位上为实现四个现代化而忘我地工作着原句中名词见闻被误用为动词应当改为看到之类的动词②小梅干活很卖力气咱队的大人小孩没有一个不说她劳动不积极原句中没有一个不说即大家都说后面再加上一个否定副词不来否定积极意思就正好和原意相反了应去掉最后一个不字③这个炼钢车间由十天开一炉变为五天开一炉时间缩短一倍数量的减少不能用倍数表示只能用分数表示一倍应改为百分之五十二分之一或一半④他家在村子的南边面对着一幢小山量词幢zhuàng常用于楼房山应用座表示⑤目前日本约有二万台机器人机器人多用于汽车装配炼铁搬运喷漆等工种名词机器人前的量词台应改为个⑥这个特别恶狠狠的抢劫犯终于被刑警逮捕了形容词恶狠狠不能加程度副词特别应删第五章语法思考和练习三一划分汉语实词虚词的依据是什么两者的不同主要是实词意义比较实在有词汇意义能充当句法成分虚词则相反意义较虚只有语法意义不单独充当句法成分二用△号把下面一段话里的虚词标出来然后列一个虚词表把它们的大类小类分别填在表里重复的可只写一个并用数码表示重复的次数一个晴朗的早晨天空碧蓝碧蓝的不沾一丝云彩一股带看清凉和花香的微风轻轻地吹拂着早起的飞燕掠过小白杨树的头顶找食去了多嘴的小麻雀刚睁开眼睛就吵吵嚷嚷堆讨论早饭该吃些什么牵牛花向日葵的花瓣沾满了露水给刚刚升起的太阳照耀得闪闪发光颜色变得格外鲜艳了一只花喜鹊从村子里飞来她还没站稳脚跟就对小白杨树们说喂小白杨树村子里的人们就要来修大路啦三下面各组句子里加着重号的词在词性上作用上有没有不同为什么甲①这个人不会过日子②我去过上海例①过是动词在句子中作动语例②过是动态助词表示曾经有的经历乙③情况会一天天好起来的④他是一个修房子的例③的是语气词起强调肯定的作用例④是是结构助词放在修房子后边一起组成的字短语这个的字不可缺少丙⑤他近来很容易闹脾气了⑥不必客气我的确吃过了例⑤了是语气词表示陈述语气肯定事情发生了变化例⑥了兼有语气词和动态助词两种作用既表示动作完成又表陈述语气肯定事情已经实现了四在下面句子里的空格处填上适当的结构助词并说明理由①问题彻底_________解决了彻底解决是动词性偏正短语作谓语彻底是状语应填地②彻底________解决问题是不容易的主语是动词短语动词解决前的附加成分是状语应填地③问题解决________不彻底解决是中心语不彻底是补语应填得④问题还没有得到彻底________解决解决是宾语中心彻底是定语应填的⑤他认为应当认真________研究认真是形容词作状语后面应当填地五下面两组里结构相似的句子意思是否相同甲①我在北京住了三年②我在北京住了三年了①表示现在已经不在北京住②表示现在还在北京住乙③我只同他说过这个问题④我同他只说过这个问题③表示只同他说过没有同别人说过④表示只说过这个问题没有说过别的问题六我跟他去过这句话可以有不同的理解请分别加上适当的词把不同的意思都固定下来并说明这个意思中跟的词性①我跟他都去过连词②我曾经跟他去过介词③我跟着他去过动词七改正下列病句并说明理由①今年又是一个丰收年粮食产量超过去年的125％超过去年的125％等于说比去年粮食产量的125％多实际上还没有去年生产的粮食多那就不是丰收年了应将的去掉使125％成为超过量②这个山区的变化对于我们都是非常了解的本句犯了主客颠倒的毛病是我们了解山区的变化不是山区变化了解我们应将对于移到句首或在我们后边加上来说二字让对于我们来说成为独立语③在改善学生生活上我们学校采取了一些措施在在上中应该是名词性短语而改善学生生活是动词性短语改法有二一是将上改为方面一是在生活后边加上的问题④窗前有一个小菜园种有苋菜豆角黄瓜和许多种蔬菜此句犯了种概念和类概念并列的毛病苋菜豆角和黄瓜各是蔬菜的一种不能与蔬菜并列应将和改为等或在许多种前加上其他二字⑤本校职工或学生出入校门要凭工作证和学生证和表示加合性并列或表示选择性并列职工只能凭工作证学生只能凭学生证因此和应改为或⑥我代表学校向新同学致以亲切地慰问慰问为宾语中心语亲切是其定语因此应将地改为的⑦他深知过华人进入美国一旦触犯美国法规除文化背景语言不通外再加上财力不足打起官司来必败无疑深知属于动作不强的动词不能带过⑧即使做超级明星的目标达不到高级的业余爱好也可比一般人拥有了较充实的人生拥有本身含有动作已实现的意思不必加了第五章语法思考和练习四一试述短语在语法中的重要地位短语处于词和句子这两级语法单位之间的重要位置上短语由词构成短语和词一样可以做句子的组成成分大多数短语加上句调就可以独立成句这样看来掌握了短语的结构分析实质上也就掌握了句子的结构分析短语的主要的结构类型和词的结构类型是纂本一致的掌握了短语的结构分析也就不难掌握合成词的结构分析了二试举例说明汉语组成短语的语法手段汉语组成短语的语法手段是语序和虚词有一些短语只靠语序组成例如主谓短语是主语在前．谓语在后动宾短语是动语在前宾语在后有一些短语既依靠语序也依靠虚词例如偏正短语和中补短语里都有一部分短语不只靠语序还要分别用上相应的结构助词三指出《不老歌》中三字短语的结构类和功能类起得早睡得好七分饱常跑跑多笑笑莫烦恼天天忙永不老中补动词性中补动词性偏正形容词性偏正动词性偏正动词性偏正形容词性偏正形容词性偏正形容词性四指出下面句子中定语的短语结构类和功能类动宾动词性偏正名词性方位短语名词性偏正名词性动宾动词性偏正动词性联合形容词性偏正名词性偏正名词性偏正短语名词性中补动词性攀登高峰金色秋天友谊园里理想王国获得甜果秉公办事健康长寿身体内部时代洪流前进路上走向深渊五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系①矿山建设者的摇篮五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系②不能磨灭的深刻印象五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系③写出更多更好的作品五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系④分析研究一下材料五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系⑤谁是最可爱的人五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系⑥做一个有理想有作为的青年五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系⑦一种新式的炊具电磁炉五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系⑧世界珍贵希有动物熊猫的故乡中国五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系⑨划分词类的一个目的是讲述词的用法五用从大到小的层次分析法分析每个短语的层次和结构关系⑩浓浓的长长的眉毛和一双不大不小的眼睛六分析下列多义短语的内部结构层次和结构关系的不同①他的哥哥和妹妹的三位朋友他的哥哥和妹妹的三位朋友六分析下列多义短语的内部结构层次和结构关系的不同②热爱人民的军队热爱人民的军队六分析下列多义短语的内部结构层次和结构关系的不同③三个报社的记者和编辑三个报社的记者和编辑六分析下列多义短语的内部结构层次和结构关系的不同④看打乒乓球的中小学生看打乒乓球的中小学生六分析下列多义短语的内部结构层次和结构关系的不同⑤对售货员的意见对售货员的意见六分析下列多义短语的内部结构层次和结构关系的不同⑥照顾孩子的妈妈照顾孩子的妈妈六分析下列多义短语的内部结构层次和结构关系的不同⑦反对用人唯亲的程×× 反对用人唯亲的程×× 六分析下列多义短语的内部结构层次和结构关系的不同⑧讨厌酗酒和赌博的女人讨厌酗酒和赌博的女人第五章语法思考和练习五一1．什么词语可以充当主语宾语什么词语可以充当谓语⑪名词性词语和谓词性词语都可以充当主语名词性主语在用法上一般不受限制只有一些词语例如代词量词短语做主语时受语言环境的限制做主语的例子如名词性词语作主语的例子如名词月亮‖升起来了代词他‖是正确的偏正短语白衬衣‖容易脏联合短语爸爸和妈妈‖都来了同位短语他们俩‖都来了量词短语一公斤‖等于二市斤的字短语先进的‖帮助落后的谓词性词语作主语对谓语有定限制谓语性短语作主语的例子如动词提高‖要有一个基础形容词认真‖是对的偏正短语努力学习‖是每个学生的任务过分仔细‖不是件好事联合短语集合跑步是新兵连最基本的训练项目轻巧灵便‖是这辆自行车的特点主谓短语他‖去比你去强动宾短语掌握一门外语‖是必要的中补短语学得快‖不如学得牢连谓短语推着小车买菜‖是张大妈每天的功课兼语短语让他去‖是正确的⑫能做主语的一般都能做宾语先看名词性词语名词小王喜欢｜美术代词小王喜欢｜他偏正短语小王喜欢｜老实人联合短语小王喜欢｜游泳射击同位短语小王喜欢｜他们几个量词短语小王喜欢｜这本的字短语小王喜欢｜红的再看谓词性短语小王喜欢｜跑步小王喜欢｜清静小王喜欢｜快跑小王喜欢｜发明创造动宾短语小王喜欢｜打篮球主谓短语小王喜欢｜衣服整洁中补短语小王喜欢｜住在学校连谓短语小王喜欢｜下海游泳兼语短语小王喜欢｜求人帮忙⑬谓语性词语能自由地作谓语动词老师‖来了形容词劳动‖光荣代词你‖怎么了偏正短语我们‖马上出发这孩子‖真聪明联合短语这姑娘‖聪明能干主谓短语这种水稻‖生长期短动宾短语我‖喜欢读书中补短语你‖来晚了连谓短语我‖乘飞机去北京兼语短语老师‖请你过去名词性词语在一定条件下也可以作谓语名词导演张艺谋数词她‖十八了偏正短语鲁迅‖浙江人量词短语儿子‖三岁 2．什么词语可以充当定语状语补语三者各修饰或补充什么成分⑪定语除副词性词语外其他实词和短语一般都可以做定语名词性词语如名词学校的花园代词他的课本偏正短语一位工人的建议联合短语爸爸和妈妈的意见同位短语我们工人的住房量词短语一封信方位短语学校里的树木谓词性词语如动词游泳的学生形容词明亮的教室偏正短语已经毕业的学生非常漂亮的眼睛联合短语明亮整洁的书房又哭又闹的孩子主谓短语鲁迅写的小说动宾短语运送货物的汽车中补短语跑得快的学生连谓短语去海滩捡贝壳的游客兼语短语招人喜爱的孩子谓词性词语如动词游泳的学生形容词明亮的教室偏正短语已经毕业的学生非常漂亮的眼睛联合短语明亮整洁的书房又哭又闹的孩子主谓短语鲁迅写的小说动宾短语运送货物的汽车中补短语跑得快的学生连谓短语去海滩捡贝壳的游客兼语短语招人喜爱的孩子定语主要是修饰后面的名词性中心语有时候特别是书面语里中心语也可能是谓词性词语例如动词中心语管理上的失策形容词中心语海底的奇异⑫状语经常作状语的是副词时间名词形容词能愿动词和谓词性代词短语里的介词短语可以自由做状语其他一些短语也会用做状语副词性词语副词不来介词短语向他说明谓词性词语动词能够掌握形容词认真学习代词怎样学习偏正短语非常认真地检查了一遍联合短语愉快而及时地接受检查主谓短语头脑冷静地分析问题动宾短语有目的地检查量词短语一次一次。

当代语法学教程9第九章形容词短语-资料

第九章形容词短语
2020/5/31
当代语法学教程
1
形容词
有没有形容词？形容词的分类依据是什么？
2020/5/31
当代语法学教程
2
汉语没有形容词（McCawley）
2020/5/31
当代语法学教程
3
形宾组合
需要成对的词，一动一形进行对照
汉语缺乏这样成对的词
张三不满李四张三对李四不满
*一个很好人/ *一个不好人
句法上形名不能直接组合
2020/5/31
当代语法学教程
6
量度
2020/5/31
当代语法学教程
7
系表组合
汉语形容词直接作谓语不需要系动词
形宾组合论元结构
形名组合
汉语没有形容词
量形组合
系表组合
2020/5/31
当代语法学教程
— ？ — — —
8
汉语有形容词（朱德熙）
2020/5/31
当代语法学教程
13
理论后果
以光杆形式参与计算的形容词
➢由量度范畴指派量特征，且量度范畴须有语音实现：今儿怪冷的 *我高 *你帅
或通过别的方式完句：
➢C层的焦点、话题等
[F价钱]便宜，[F质量]也好 [Topic他]头发蓬松 [Topic树木]枝叶茂密 ➢I层的否定范畴等其他范畴
假定“大的树”是短语
*大的一棵树
*薄的一层纸
挺大的一棵树
很薄的一层纸
“大的树”是合成词，而“挺大的树”是短语
➢状态形容词强制性地受Deg扩展
所以具有短语属性，不能参与词法计算
202*0/雪5/31白衬衫
*红当通代通语法脸学教程 *古里古怪人 19

当代语法学教程12第十二章功能范畴

实为扩展动词的功能范畴Bec的phi-特征集不完整
➢ 受Bec扩展的主动词必须是活动动词、完成动词或动态形容词
*他还没把那本词典有了 *人们把玫瑰是爱情的象征
静态动词，如存现动词（有、在）、属性动词（是、属于）、趋向动词（上、下、下去）等不能受Bec扩展，也就不能出现于“把”字句
2021/1/2
2021/1/2
当代语法学教程
13
短语移位
最终由谁移位得由特征匹配决定 a. 放了一只鸽子 b. 飞了一只鸽子
异：能否变为“被”字句 ➢价理论 ➢“被”激发的是[-Doer]的论元移位
2021/1/2
当代语法学教程
14
确定句式的意义
与格句凸显一种转移的路径，双宾句凸现的是一种领有关系
➢ 两者间语义差别就在于双宾句中有领有范畴Poss a. 他写了一封信给我，让我转交给你 b.*他写给我一封信，让我转交给你 a. 我曾经送一件毛衣给她，她不收 b.*我曾经送给她一件毛衣，她不收
当代语法学教程
28
心理动词与趋向动词
➢ 心理动词可以接受量度范畴扩展 ➢ 别的动词也可以受量度范畴扩展
➢ 趋向动词
介于V与P之间，可以跟V融合或分离
A
B
C
抬上来了一桶啤酒抬了一桶啤酒上来抬上了一桶啤酒来
扔下来了一个酒瓶扔了一个酒瓶下来扔下了一个酒瓶来
2021/1/2
当代语法学教程
29
功能范畴：轻动词、轻名词、轻形容词、轻介词、限定范畴D、时制范畴T、话题范畴 Top、焦点范畴Foc等
➢跟实词与虚词的区分不完全对应数词、量词、代词助词里的“的”、“得”、“给” 介词里的“把”、“被”、“比”
2021/1/2