批判性阅读(课堂PPT)

☉限定（Qualifiers）：考虑到可能出现的反例，对 结论的范围和强度进行限定。
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• Let’s be clear what we’re talking about here. It’s not just torture and illegal wiretapping, whose perpetrators claim, however implausibly, that they were patriots acting to defend the nation’s security. The fact is that the Bush administration’s abuses extended from environmental policy to voting rights. And most of the abuses involved using the power of government to reward political friends and punish political enemies.
• I’m sorry, but if we don’t have an inquest into what happened during the Bush years — and nearly everyone has taken Mr. Obama’s remarks to mean that we won’t — this means that those who hold power are indeed above the law because they don’t face any consequences if they abuse their power.
☉断言（Claim）：被证明的结论、主张、观点。
☉保证（Warrant）：用来连接证据和结论之间的普 遍性原则、规律 [相当于大前提] 是否包括合规则的推理？
☉支撑（Backing）：为保证（大前提）提供进一步 支撑的陈述、理由，以表明原则或规律是真的。
☉辩驳（Rebuttals）：对已知反例的考虑。
• At the Justice Department, for example, political appointees illegally reserved nonpolitical positions for “right-thinking Americans” — their term, not mine — and there’s strong evidence that officials used their positions both to undermine the protection of minority voting rights and to persecute Democratic politicians.
第 73-79页，2010
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从最终结论向前追寻前提、前提的前提
初始理由：运动员感觉象 在海拔3000米的地方比赛
初始理由：在不同微粒含 量的空气中冲刺的实验
理由１: 损害已经产生 - 气 闷使自行车运动员中途退出
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• Last Sunday President-elect Barack Obama was asked whether he would seek an investigation of possible crimes by the Bush administration. “I don’t believe that anybody is above the law,” he responded, but “we need to look forward as opposed to looking backwards.”
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例6
——《时代》网站 2008年8月14日
——《时代》周刊 2008年8月25日
本节内容采纳董毓先生 的分析成果，参见，批 判性思维原理和方法，
第二讲：批判性阅读
——阅读论证性文章
2.1 批判性阅读的目的与重要性 2.2 批判性阅读的方法 2.3 分析理解论证 2.4 审验评估论证 2.5 图尔明模型 2.6 批判性阅读与写作
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理由２:北京的空气是污染汤， 每一成份都会影响运动
结论：北京的污染会对运动员比赛造成损害
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2.5 图尔明(stephen E. toulmin)模型
◎一个好论证，由六个部分组成
☉数据（Data）：事实、证据 [相当于小前提]
• The hiring process at Justice echoed the hiring process during the occupation of Iraq — an occupation whose success was supposedly essential to national security — in which applicants were judged by their politics, their personal loyalty to President Bush and, according to some reports, by their views on Roe v. Wade, rather than by their ability to do the job.