Chapter 38 Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology[第38章被子植物生殖和生物技术](41)

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农业英语词汇

农业英语词汇一、植物分类种子植物seed plant常绿植物：evergreen plant; 落叶植物：deciduous plant.草本植物：herbaceous plant; 木本植物：ligneous/woody plant=xylophyta [ligni-=xylo-: 表“木”义]被子植物：angiosperm; 裸子植物：gymnosperm [sperm：精液/子]阔叶植物：broadleaved plant; 针叶植物：conifer.旱生植物：xerophilous plant=xeromorph; 水生植物：water/aquatic plant; hydrophyte阳性植物：light-demanding plant; 阴性植物：shade-demanding plant.优势植物：dominant plant指示植物：indicator先锋植物：pioneer森林植物：forestry plant欣赏植物：decorative plant; 盆栽植物：potted plant; 药用植物：medical plants无叶植物：aphyllous plant种seed=strain=breed品种variety矮杆品种short-stalked(茎杆)variety=short-straw(稻草，麦杆) variety二、物种名称1、植物物种水稻paddy (rice)=rice水葫芦water hyacinth包心菜cabbage2、动物物种植物寄生虫a garden pest种牛bull kept for covering；种马stud；种蓄breeding stock=stud stock水牛(water) buffalo昆虫insect有害物pest螨acarid；红蜘蛛 a red mite *mite: 微小的东西。

十二生肖：鼠rat；牛ox；虎tiger；兔hare；龙dragon；蛇snake；马horse；羊sheep；猴monkey；鸡cock；狗dog；猪hog。

hormones

hormonesHormonesIntroduction:Hormones are essential signaling molecules that regulate various processes in the body. They are secreted by glands and travel through the bloodstream to target tissues, where they exert their effects. The endocrine system, which includes various glands such as the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and reproductive glands, plays a crucial role in hormone production and regulation. This document explores the function, types, regulation, and importance of hormones in the human body.Function of Hormones:Hormones serve as messengers that carry signals from one part of the body to another. They play a key role in maintaining homeostasis, which refers to the body's ability to regulate internal conditions despite external changes. Hormones regulate a wide range of physiological processes including growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response. For example, insulin, a hormone released by the pancreas, controls blood sugar levels and facilitates glucose uptake by cells.Types of Hormones:Hormones can be broadly classified into three categories based on their chemical structure: peptides, steroids, and amines. Peptide hormones, such as insulin and growth hormone, consist of chains of amino acids. Steroid hormones, such as cortisol and testosterone, are derived from cholesterol and have a lipid-based structure. Amines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, are derived from amino acids.Regulation of Hormones:Hormone secretion and regulation are tightly controlled to ensure optimal functioning of the body. The hypothalamus, a region in the brain, plays a critical role in this process. It releases various hormones that stimulate or inhibit hormone production in the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland, often referred to as the \。

ACT单词

学科词汇accuracy 精确度acid 酸acid rain 酸雨alcohol 酒精，乙醇aldehyde 醛alcohol burner 酒精灯alkalinity 碱度；碱性allotrope同素异形体alloy 合金Aluminium (Al) 铝apparatus 设备aqueous solution 水溶液atom 原子atomic mass 原子量benzene 苯base 碱bath 浴器，浴锅beaker 烧杯bleach 漂白；漂白剂boiling point 沸点bomb 高压气体贮罐Boron (B) 硼brine 盐水Bromine (Br) 溴buffer 缓冲剂burette 滴定管butane 丁烷Calcium (Ca) 钙calorie 卡路里（热量单位）calorimeter 热量计capillary tube 毛细管cation 阳离子；正离子carbohydrate 糖类，碳水化合物Carbon (C) 碳catalyst 催化剂catalysis 催化作用Chlorine (Cl) 氯chromatography 色层分析法coefficient 系数colloid 胶质colorimeter 色量计，色度计coloring agent 着色剂complete combustion 完全燃烧compound 化合物concentration 浓度condensation point 凝点condense 浓缩；凝结conservation of mass 质量守恒定律Copper (Cu) 铜covalent bond 共价键crude oil 原油crystal 晶体decompose 分解；腐烂decomposition reaction 分解反应dilute solution 稀溶液detergent 洗涤剂distillation 蒸馏dissolve 溶解Doppler effect 多普勒效应droplet 小滴dropper 滴管electrolyte 电解质electrolysis 电解Erlenmeyer flask 锥形瓶electron 电子element 元素emission spectrum 发射光谱endothermic 吸热的ester 酯exothermic 放热的enzyme 酶energy 能量enthalpy 焓；热函；热含量ethanol 乙醇ethanal 乙醛ethyne 乙炔fermentation 发酵filter 滤管flask 烧瓶，细颈瓶fossil fuel 矿物燃料，化石燃料fractionation 分馏法fractional distillation 分馏Fluorine (F) 氟free energy 自由能functional group 功能组gas 气体gas chromatograph 气相色谱仪gasoline 汽油glucose 葡萄糖global warming 全球变暖greenhouse gas （二氧化碳、甲烷等）导致温室效应的气体Gold (Au) 金graduated flask 量筒，量杯half life 半衰期hard water 硬质水heat of combustion 燃烧热heat of solution 溶解热Helium (He) 氦Hexane 己烷Hydrogen (H) 氢hydrogen peroxide 过氧化氢hydrate 水合物hydrolysis 水解作用hydrogen bond 氢键hydrocarbon 氢氧化物ideal gas 理想气体indicator 指示剂inhibitor 抑制剂insoluble 不溶解的insulate 隔离；使绝缘insulator 绝缘体intermolecular forces 分子间作用力Iodine (I) 碘ion 离子ionic bond 离子键Iron (Fe) 铁isomers 同分异构体isotopes 同位素Lead (Pb) 铅Lithium (Li) 锂litmus paper 石蕊试纸liquid 液体lone-pair electrons 孤对电子Magnesium (Mg) 镁manometer 压力计Manganese (Mn) 锰mass 质量mass number （原子）质量数mass percent 质量百分比mass spectrometer 质谱仪matter 物质melting point 熔点metalloid 类金属；准金属metathesis reaction 复分解反应methane 甲烷，沼气miscible 可溶混的mixture 混合物molarity 摩尔浓度molar concentration 体积摩尔浓度molar mass 摩尔质量molar volume 摩尔体积mole 摩尔molecule 分子molecular formula 分子式molecular mass 分子质量molecular compound 分子化合物monoxide 一氧化物Neon (Ne) 氖Nickel (Ni) 镍Nitrogen (N) 氮neutron 中子neutralization reaction 中和反应neutralize 中和nitrogen dioxide 二氧化氮nitrate 硝酸盐nonmetal 非金属noble gas 惰性气体nucleus 原子核nuclear fission 核裂变orbital 电子轨道organic compound 有机氧化物oxide 氧化物Oxygen (O) 氧oxidation 氧化parts per million (ppm) 百万分率petroleum 石油Phosphate 磷酸盐polymerization 聚合作用polymer 聚合物precipitate 沉淀物Potassium (K) 钾plunger 活塞pressure 压强product 反应产出物proton 质子radioactivity 放射性radioisotope 放射性同位素rate of dissolving 溶解率reactant 反应物reaction rate 反应速率reagent 试剂residue 残渣release 释放retort 曲颈甑reversible reaction 可逆反应reduction 还原reducing agent 还原剂refine 精炼，提纯ribbon 带状物rod 棒，杆salt 盐saturated solution 饱和同业soft water 软水Selenium (Se) 硒silicate 硅酸盐Silicon (Si) 硅Silver (Ag) 银Sodium (Na) 钠soda lime 碱石灰solid 固体soluble 可溶解的soda 苏打solute 溶质solvent 溶剂solution 溶液standard atmospheric pressure 标准大气压101.325kPastandard solution 标准溶液standard temperature 标准温度steel 钢铁；钢制品stirrer 搅拌器strong acid 强酸strong base 强碱sucrose 蔗糖sulfur (S) 硫磺suspended 悬浮的suspension 悬浮物质stirring rod 搅拌棒synthesis reaction 合成反应syringe 注射器temperature 温度test tube 试管thermometer 温度计Tin (Sn) 锡Titanium (Ti) 钛Tungsten (W) 钨titration 滴定法torr 托(压力单位)toxic 有毒的；中毒的Uranium (U) 铀vapor 蒸汽vapor pressure 蒸汽压volatile 挥发性的volumetric flask 量瓶Volume 体积Xenon (Xe) 氙Zinc (Zn) 锌weak acid 弱酸weak base 弱碱Biologyabiotic factor 非生物因素activation energy 活化能adaptation 适应adaptive immunity 适应性免疫aerobic 需氧的algae 藻类；海藻allele 等位基因anaerobic 厌氧的ammonia 氨amino acid 氨基酸amphibian 两栖动物angiosperm 被子植物anther 花药，花粉囊aquatic 水生的；水栖的artery 动脉anthropologist 人类学家antibody 抗体antigen 抗原arthropod 节肢动物artificial selection 人工选择；人为淘汰atom 原子autoimmunity 自身免疫autotroph 自养生物bacteria 细菌bacterial 细菌的basic 碱性的bioaccumulation 生物体内积累biodiversity 生物多样性biomass 生物量biome 生物群系biosphere 生物圈biota 生物区cancer 癌症；恶性肿瘤capillary 毛细管carbohydrate 碳水化合物；糖类carcinogen 致癌物质carnivore 食肉动物caste system 等级制cell 细胞cell respiration 细胞呼吸cell wall 细胞壁central nervous system (CNS) 中枢神经系统cerebellum 小脑cerebrum 大脑chemosynthesis 化学合成chromosome 染色体chronic 慢性的；长期的chlorophyll 叶绿素chloroplast 叶绿体circulation 循环clearing 空地cleavage 卵裂；细胞分裂clinical trial 临床试验clone 克隆colony 菌落compost 堆肥；混合物consumer 消费有机体coronary 冠状的cuticle 角质层；表皮cytoplasm 细胞质decomposition 分解diarrhea 腹泻，痢疾digestion 消化DNA 脱氧核糖核酸digest 消化；吸收digestive system 消化系统dinosaur 恐龙displacement 位移dominant 显性的ecological 生态的，生态学的ecological succession 生态演替ecosystem 生态系统egestion 排泄enzyme 酶eukaryote 真核细胞evolution 进化论electron 电子emulsifying agent 乳化剂energy pyramid 能量金字塔excretion 排泄物family 科fauna 动物群fermentation 发酵flora 植物群food chain 食物链food web 食物网fungus 真菌，霉菌fuzzy 有绒毛的gene 基因genera 属genetics 遗传学genetic code 遗传密码；基因序列genome 基因组；染色体组genus "genera"的复数形式germination 发芽glucose 葡萄糖habitat 栖息地herb 草本植物herbivore 草食动物hereditary 遗传的heterotroph 异养生物heterozygous 杂合的hibernate 冬眠hormone 激素，荷尔蒙incubate 孵化；培养incubation 孵化infect 感染，传染infection 传染病；感染ingestion 摄取；吸收insect 昆虫HLA (human leukocyte antigens) 类白细胞抗原hind wing 后翅homozygous 纯合子的；同型结合的hydroelectric power 水利发电hydrophilic 亲水的hydrolysis 水解作用illumination 照明；光照度inbreeding 近亲交配infection 感染；传染inherited 遗传的innate 先天的inorganic 无机的；无机物的intracellular digestion 细胞内消化invertebrate 无脊椎动物jar 罐；广口瓶Jurassic period 侏罗纪larva 幼体，幼虫lawn 草地light reactions 光反应lipase 脂肪酶lymphatic 淋巴管；淋巴腺lysosome 溶酶体macronutrient 大量营养素mammal 哺乳动物marking (动植物的)斑纹，斑点membrane 膜；薄膜meiosis 减数分裂metabolism 新陈代谢micronutrient 微量营养素microscope 显微镜mitochondria 线粒体migrate 迁徙molasses 糖蜜，糖浆mutation 突变natural selection 自然选择nerve 神经nervous system 神经系统neuron 神经元nitrogen 氮nuclear waste 核废料nucleus 原子核nucleic acid 核酸DNA or RNAnumerical aperture 数值孔径nutrition 营养nucleolus 细胞核nutrient 营养物obesity 肥大，肥胖object size 实物大小omnivore 杂食动物order 目organ 器官organic 有机的organism 有机物osmosis 渗透ozone hole 臭氧层空洞placebo 安慰剂plasmid 质粒paleontology 古生物学Petri dish 培养皿pest 害虫pesticide 杀虫剂phenotype 显型phosphorus 磷photoelectric 光电的photosynthesis 光合作用phytoplankton 浮游植物plankton 浮游生物poison 毒药，毒物plot 小块土地pollen 花粉pollination 授粉(作用)polypeptide 多肽population density 人口密度；种群密度population genetics 人口遗传学potassium 钾pupal 蛹的predation 捕食predatory 食肉的prescription drug 处方药preservative 防腐剂primary structure 一级结构；原始结构prokaryote 原核生物proton 质子protein 蛋白质puberty 青春期；开花期quaternary structure 四级结构rainfall 降雨；降雨量recessive 隐性性状reduction 还原reflex 反射reptile 爬行动物respiration 呼吸作用reflex arc 反射弧regulation 调整reproduce 复制；繁殖reproduction 生殖reservoir 水库；蓄水池RNA 核糖核酸sexual reproduction 有性生殖secondary growth 次生生长secondary structure 二级结构shrimp 虾shrub 木本植物sieve tube 筛管slide 载片sparrow 麻雀species 物种；种类spirilla 螺旋状菌spore 孢子stalk 茎，秆stamen 雄蕊sterile 无菌的stimulus 刺激succession 演替synergism 协同作用synthesis 合成symbiosis 共生；共栖symptom 症状taiga 针叶树林地带temperate deciduous forest 温带落叶林terrestrial ecosystem 陆地生态系统tertiary structure 三级结构texture 材质，纹理，结构tissue 组织trait 特性，特征transport 传送transcription factor 转录因子transpiration 蒸腾作用trophic structure 营养结构tropical rain forest 热带雨林trypsin 胰蛋白酶；胰岛素tundra 苔原unicellular 单细胞的urine 尿vegetation 植被vitamin 维生素virus 病毒waterborne 水传播的windborne 风传播的wingspan 翼展yeast 酵母yolk 蛋黄zooplankton 浮游动物Earth/Space Sciencesaggradation 沉积altitude 高度aquiclude 含水层asteroid 小行星asteroid belt 小行星带astronomer 天文学家atmosphere 大气层aurora 极光；曙光avalanche 崩落basalt 玄武岩basin 盆地beach 海滩bedrock 基岩；根底biome 生物群系biosphere 生物圈blackbody 黑体black hole 黑洞breccia 角砾岩calving 裂冰作用carbonate 碳酸盐climate 气候comet 彗星community 群落conduction 传导configuration 结构；配置constellation 星群continental crust 大陆地壳continental drift 大陆漂移continental margin 大陆边缘continental shelf 大陆架coral 珊瑚convection 对流corrosiveness 腐蚀性；侵蚀作用crystallization 结晶作用cryosphere 冰冻圈cumulates 堆积岩cyclone 旋风；气旋dam 水坝debris 残骸；碎片deposit 沉淀depression 低气压desert 沙漠devastate 毁灭electromagnetic energy 电磁能elliptic 椭圆的emit 发射endorheic basin 内流盆地epicenter 震中erosion 腐蚀estuary 河口；江口evaporation 蒸发fabric 组构facies 相fault line 断层线；裂纹线fossil 化石galaxy 银河系gaseous 气态的，气体的geocentric model 地心说geomagnetism 地磁学glacial drift 冰碛glacier 冰河，冰川glow 发炽热的光辉greenhouse effect 温室效应heliocentric model 日心说hurricanes 飓风humidity 湿度；湿气hydrological cycle 水循环hydrosphere 水界，水圈igneous rock 火成岩infiltration 渗透infrared 红外线的intact 完整的；原封不动的Jupiter 木星laminar 层状的；薄片状的landslide 山崩lava 火山岩浆limestone 石灰岩lithosphere 岩石圈location 位置；地点magnitude 震级mantle and core 地幔与地核mantle plumes 地幔柱marble 大理石Mars 火星mass extinction 大规模灭绝Mercury 水星mesosphere 中间层meteor 流星meteorology 气象学metamorphic rock 变质学metamorphism 变质作用meteorology 气象学moisture 水分；潮湿monsoon 季风moon 卫星nebula 星云Neptune 海王星orbit 轨道ore 矿；矿石ozone hole 臭氧层空洞permeability 渗透性petroleum 石油planet 行星plateau 高原plume 岩浆柱Pluto 冥王星pluvial 雨季pluvial lake 雨成湖pollutant 污染物precipitation 沉淀，沉淀物prehistoric 史前的prokaryote 原核生物aquifer 蓄水层radiation 辐射runoff 径流salt pans 盐田Saturn 土星seasonal 季节的；周期性的secondary pollutant 次生污染物sediment 沉积sedimentary rock 沉积岩seismic 地震的seismograph 地震仪sewage 污水site 地点soil profile 土层剖面solar system 太阳系solar energy 太阳能sonography 超声波扫描术soot 烟灰star 恒星stoping 顶蚀作用sublimation 升华sun 太阳system 系tectonic plate motion 地壳板块运动telescope 望远镜temperate 温和的；适度的tephra 火山灰terrestrial planet 类地行星terrestrial radiation 地面辐射The Great Lakes 五大湖thermosphere 热大气层thunderstorms 雷暴transpiration 蒸腾作用tides 潮汐till 冰积层tornado 龙卷风troposphere 对流层tsunami 海啸ultraviolet 紫外线的Uranus 天王星Venus 金星viscosity 粘度volcano 火山weathering 风化作用Physicsabsolute zero 绝对零度AC generator 交流发电机acceleration 加速器acceleration due to gravity 重力加速度accommodation 调节adiabatic 绝热的；隔热的alternating current 交流电ampere 安培amplitude 振幅anode 阳极angular velocity 角速度arc 弧average acceleration 平均加速度average velocity 平均速度balloon 气球barometer 气压计battery 电池bel 贝尔Big Bang 宇宙大爆炸Big Crunch 宇宙打收缩biogas 沼气blend 融合音buoyant force 浮力cathode 阴极centripetal acceleration 向心加速度closed circuit 闭合电路coefficient of friction 摩擦系数compression 压缩concave mirror 凹面镜concave lens 凹透镜conductor 道题constant acceleration 等加速度constant velocity 匀速control 实验对照组convection 对流converging lens 凸透镜coordinate system 坐标系convex mirror 凸面镜convex lens 凸透镜current 电流DC generator 直流发电机decibel 分贝dense 浓密的density 密度departure 离开dependent variable 因变量destructive interference 相消干扰deviation 偏差；误差diameter 直径diffraction 衍射diffusion 漫射，散射discoloration 变色diverge 分歧Doppler effect 多普勒效应drain 排水dynamics 动力学echo 回声efficiency 效率electric charge 电荷electric resistance 电阻electric field 电场electromagnet 电磁体electromagnetic induction 电磁感应electromagnetic spectrum 电磁波谱embed 把…嵌入equilibrium 平衡evaporate 蒸发fit 安装focal length 焦距frame of reference 参照系friction 摩擦力fuel cell 燃料电池geothermal power 地热能gradient 梯度变化hertz (Hz) 赫兹horizonal 水平的hypothesis 假设image 成像inclined plane 斜面independent variable 自变量index of refraction 折射率induced current 感生电流inertia 惯性insulator 绝缘体interaction 相互作用joule (J) 焦耳kelvin (K) 开尔文kilowatt-hour 千瓦时kinetic energy 动能longitudinal wave 纵波magnet 磁铁magnetic field 磁场magnetism 磁学magnification 放大率mass 质量mirage 幻景，海市蜃楼momentum 动量nanotechnology 纳米技术net force 净力objective lens 物镜observation 观察ohm 欧姆(电阻单位)open circuit 开路optical fibre 光学纤维optics 光学oscillate 震荡；摆动parabola 抛物线particle 颗粒；微粒pendulum 摆period 周期periodic motion 周期运动permeability 导磁性photovoltaic cells 光电管pitch 音高plane mirror 平面镜polarization 极化potential energy 势能power supply 电源presbyopia 远视眼prism 棱镜porous 能渗透的；有气孔的pulley 滑轮rainbow 彩虹ray 射线real image 实像reflection 反射refraction 折射relative velocity 相对速度release valve 泄水阀，排气阀resistivity 电阻率resonance 共振，共鸣retroreflector 反光镜rotameter 转子流量计saturation 饱和scalar 标量sensor 传感器simple harmonic motion 简谐运动source of light 光源speed 速度specific heat capacity 比热容spring scale 弹簧秤stopwatch 跑表superconductors 超导体switch 开关tank 水槽tape 胶带texture 音质thermodynamic efficiency 热力学的thermal conductivity 热导率thermal energy 热能thermosphere 热大气层;热电离层tidal power 潮汐能time interval 时间间隔torque 扭力track 轨道transformer 变压器transverse wave 横波tread 胎面trial 试验Ultrasonic 超声波的uniform acceleration 匀加速的uniform motion 均匀运动vapor 蒸汽variable 变量vector 矢量velocity 速度virtual image 虚像visible spectrum 可见光谱volt (V) 伏特voltage 电压voltaic cell 原电池voltmeter 伏特计watt (W) 瓦特wave 波work 功B2 高频词汇absorb 吸收accomplish 完成；实现adhesive 粘合剂adjacent 邻近的adverse 不利的；相反的allocation 配置，分配alteration 改变altitude 高度antibiotic 抗生素approach 方法approximately 大约arbitrary unit 任意单位assertion 断言atmosphere 大气层base 碱bacteria 细菌basalt 玄武岩bead 珠子beaker 烧杯bending 弯曲度beneath 在…之下bond 化学键bottom 底部boundary 边界buoyancy force 浮力categorize 分类cause 引起chamber 腔，室，房circuit 电路clay 粘土clockwise 顺时针方向的close to 接近于coefficient 系数coil 线圈collection 收集，采集combine 使混合compare 比较compress 压缩compressibility 压缩率concentration 浓度conductor 导体conclusion 结论consecutive 连续的constant 常数counter 反驳contaminate 污染contribute to 促成control 实验对照组consumption 耗能contain 包含contradict 反驳controversial 有争议的copper 铜correspond with/to 与…一致curve 弯曲data 数据，资料denature (蛋白质)变性depict 描述deposit 沉积物，沉淀diagram 图表diameter 直径decrease 减少decelerate 减速density 密度deplete 耗尽discern 识别dissolve 使溶解distinguish 区分diverse 不同的dosage 剂量effect 影响element 元素energy 能量epoch 时代；时期equal 平等的error 误差exhaust 废气external 外部的extinct 灭绝的factor 因素favorable 有利的fertilizer 肥料filter 过滤flask 烧瓶form 构成fossil 化石friction 摩擦力frequency 频率gas 气体generate 产生generalize 概况genetically modified 转基因的graph 图表gravity 重力geology 地质学glacial 冰河的half life period 半衰期hectare 公顷hydrocarbon 碳氢化合物hypothesize 假设，假定identical 完全相同的increase 增加illumination 照明；阐明ingredient 原料；组成部分initial 开始的intensity 强度instrument 仪器insulator 绝缘体interpret 解释interval 间隔isotope 同位素justify 证明…正当layer 层；地层leakage 泄露；渗漏物lens 透镜；镜片liken ... to ... 把…比做…linear 线性的liquid 液体，流体marine 海洋的measurement 测量medium 介质melt 熔化metric 公制的mixture 混合molecular 分子的net 净余的nutrient 营养物odorless 没有气味的organic 有机的ozone 臭氧parameter 参数parasite 寄生虫particle 粒子planet 行星plausible 貌似有理的plot 图表;平面图pollutant 污染物precipitate 沉淀物preference 偏爱pressure 压力procedure 过程；步骤protein 蛋白质pulley 滑轮quantity 量radiation 辐射random 随机的ratio 比率raw material 原材料react 反应reduce 减少；降低reflect 反映region 地区resistor 电阻器root 根；根茎sample 样品saturation 饱和sediment 沉积物simultaneously 同时地skeleton 骨架slide 载玻片silt 淤泥species 物种specific 明确的；详细的substance 物质sound barrier 声障stable 稳定的substitute 代替sublimate 升华susceptible 敏感的suspect 怀疑solution 溶液statement 陈述stem 干；茎suppose 假使synthesis 合成tail 尾部tension 张力tertiary 第三的thermometer 温度计tissue 组织toxic 有毒的transition 转换trial 实验tube 管typical 典型的undisputed 无可争辩的vegetation 植被velocity 速度versus 对；与…相对vertical 垂直的viewpoint 观点viscous 粘性的voltage 电压volume 体积weight 砝码wire 电线yield 生产数学词汇一、Algebra 代数real numbers 实数plus/add 加minus/subtract 减times/multiply 乘divide (by) 除sum 和difference 差product 积quotient/division 商absolute value 绝对值integers 整数positive integers 正整数negative integers 负整数non-negative integers 非负整数even integers 偶数odd integers 奇数consecutive integers 连续整数divisibility 整除multiples 倍数least common multiple 最小公倍数remainders 余数factors 因子（因数）greatest common factor 最大公因数primes 质数fractions 分数numerator 分子denominator 分母reciprocal 倒数equivalent fractions 等值分数common denominator 公分母percent 百分比ratio 比proportion 比例direct proportionality 正比例inversely proportionality 反比例decimals 小数repeating decimals 循环小数terminating decimals 有限小数rational numbers 有理数irrational numbers 无理数base 底数exponent 指数square 平方cube 立方powers 幂root 根fractional powers 分数幂logarithms 对数natural logarithm 自然对数polynomial 多项式inequality 不等式equation 方程linear equations 一次方程quadratic equations 二次方程sequences 数列arithmetic sequence 等差数列geometric sequence 等比数列matrices 矩阵complex numbers 复数二、Geometry 几何point 点line 线plane 面solid 体segment 线段ray 射线parallel 平行intersect 相交angle 角degree 角度radian 弧度acute angle 锐角right angle 直角obtuse angle 钝角straight angle 平角base 底side 边height 高angle bisector 角平分线vertical angles 对顶角triangle 三角形acute triangle 锐角三角形right triangle 直角三角形leg 直角边hypotenuse 斜边Pythagorean theorem 勾股定理obtuse triangle 钝角三角形scalene triangle 不等边三角形isosceles triangle 等腰三角形equilateral triangle 等边三角形congruence of triangles 全等三角形similar triangles 相似三角形quadrilateral 四边形parallelogram 平行四边形rectangle 矩形length 长width 宽rhombus 菱形square 正方形trapezoid 梯形right trapezoid 直角梯形isosceles trapezoid 等腰梯形pentagon 五边形hexagon 六边形heptagon 七边形octagon 八边形enneagon 九边形decagon 十边形polygon 多边形regular polygon 正多边形similar polygon 相似多边形tangent 切线inscribed angle 圆周角circle 圆center 圆心radius 半径diameter 直径arc 弧chord 弦semicircle 半圆sector 扇形concentric circles 同心圆ring 环ellipse 椭圆circumference 圆周perimeter 周长area 面积similar 相似congruent 全等tetrahedron 四面体hexahedron 六面体parallelepiped 平行六面体cube 立方体pyramid 棱锥prism 棱柱frustum of a prism 棱台vertex 顶点cone 圆锥cylinder 圆柱frustum of a cone 圆台sphere 球hemisphere 半球undersurface 底面surface area 表面积volume 体积space 空间三、Coordinate Geometry 解析几何midpoint 中点function 函数domain 定义域range 值域y-intercept y-轴截距slope 斜率the linear function 一次函数quadratic function 二次函数symmetry 对称odd functions 奇函数composite functions 复合函数system of inequalities 不等式组coefficient 系数四、Trigonometry 三角sine 正弦cosine 余弦tangent 正切cotangent 余切secant 正割cosecant 余割period 周期amplitude 振幅the law of sines 正弦定理the law of cosines 余弦定理五、Statistics 统计sets 集合element 元素null set 空集subset 子集intersection 交集union 并集complement 补集mean 平均数median 中位数mode 众数weighted average 加权平均数probability 概率event 事件。

生物学专业英语词汇

Botany 植物学Cell theory细胞学说cell membrane细胞膜nucleus细胞核Organelle细胞器cell wall细胞壁cytoplasm细胞质protoplast原生质体cell cycle细胞周期mitochondrion线粒体photosynthesis 光合作用unit membrane单位膜chloroplast叶绿体chlorophyll叶绿素xanthophyll 叶黄素carotene胡萝卜素golgiosome高尔基体ribosome核糖体lysosome溶酶体microfilament 微丝nuclear fission核分裂reproduction生殖primary wall初生壁secondary wall次生壁plasmodesma胞间连丝mitosis 有丝分裂amitosis无丝分裂meiosis减数分裂cytokinesis胞质分裂interphase间期prophase先期metaphase中期anaphase后期telophase末期tissue 组织pistil雌蕊stamen 雄蕊ovary 子房pollination传粉pollen tube花粉管porogamy珠孔受精chalazogamy合点受精mesogamy中部受精apomixis无交融生殖apogamy无配子生殖patrogenesis孤雄生殖parthenogensis 孤雌生殖apospory无孢子生殖pericarp果皮life history生活史root system根系main root主根lateral root侧根taproot system直根系fibrous root system须根系cortex 皮层vascular cylinder维管柱pericycle 中柱鞘xylem ray木射线vascular ray维管射线phloem ray韧皮射线root cap根冠Casparian strip凯氏带primary xylem初生木质部primary phloem 初生韧皮部vascular ray维管射线xylem ray木射线phelloderm栓内层phloem ray韧皮射线embryo胚homologous organ同源器官analogous organ 同功器官endosperm胚乳seed coat种皮radicle 胚根plumule 胚芽hypocotyl下胚轴cotyledon子叶dormancy 休眠seed germination种子萌生eukaryote真核生物prokaryote原核生物algae 藻类blue-green algae 蓝藻trichogyne受精丝精选文库mucopolysaccharide 黏多糖gelatinous sheath 胶质鞘exospore外生孢子heterosexual cell异性细胞green algae绿藻isogamy同配生殖anisogamy 异配生殖anisogamy卵式生殖zygogamy接合生殖haploid 单倍体diploid 二倍体polyploid多倍体carposporophyte孢子体brown algae褐藻sea-tangle海带agar 琼脂fungi 菌类parasitism寄生saprophytic腐生的lichen 地衣archegonium颈卵器antheridium精子器antiphyte孢子体gametophyte配子体protonema原丝体bryophyta苔藓植物cruciferae十字花科vascular plants 微管植物aquatic plant 水生植物salicaceae杨柳科angiosperm被子植物endoplasmic reticulum内质网vegetative reproduction营养生殖intercellular layer 胞间层phellogen& cork cambium木栓形成层asexual reproduction无性生殖sexual propagation有性生殖tetradynamous stamen四强雄蕊didynamous stamen二强雄蕊monodelphous stamen单体雄蕊diadelphous stamen二体雄蕊triadelphous stamen三体雄蕊polyadelphous stamens多体雄蕊synantherous stamen聚药雄蕊primary wall cells初生壁细胞vegetative cell营养细胞male sterility雄性不育filiform apparatus 丝状器meristem zone分生区elongation zone伸长区maturation zone成熟区embryophyte 有胚植物specific parasitism专性寄生specific saprophyte 专性腐生facultative parasitism兼性寄生facultative saprophyte兼性腐生sexual generation有性世代asexual generation 无性世代Zoology 动物学cell 细胞prokaryotic cell原核细胞eukaryotic cell真核细胞protein 蛋白质nucleic acid核酸carbohydrate糖lipid 脂质protoplasm原生质inclusion内含物cell cycle细胞周期pulmonary alveolus肺泡flagellum鞭毛food vacuole食品泡pinocytosis胞饮作用fission裂体生殖microgamete小配子zygote 合子microtubule微管contraction silk缩短丝merogenesis卵裂blastocoele囊胚腔complete cleavage 完整卵裂layering分层cynapse突触myoneme肌丝myocyte肌细胞mesoglea 中胶层monoecism雌雄同体dioecism雌雄异体velum 缘膜radial symmetry辐射对称nerve net神经网planula浮浪幼虫bilateral symmetry 双侧对称mesoderm中胚层tubule cell管细胞osmoregulation浸透调理acetabulum腹吸盘oral sucker口吸盘metacercaria囊蚴pseudocoel假体腔cuticle 角质膜cloacal pore泄殖孔renette腺肾细emunctory排泄管resting egg休眠卵metamere体节metamerism分节现象sense organ感觉器periostracum壳皮层prismatic layer壳层nacreous layer珍珠层veliger面盘幼虫glochidium钩介幼虫adductor闭壳肌segmentation异律分节linear animal线形动物pericardial cavity围心腔cervical vertebra颈椎sacral vertebra荐椎pulmonary vein肺静脉precaval vein前腔静脉bladder气囊middle ear 中耳tympanum cavity中耳腔amnion羊膜neopallium新皮层lagena瓶状囊wishbone 叉骨postcaval vein 后腔静脉glandular stomach腺胃air sac气囊salt gland盐腺sclerotic ring巩膜骨viviparity 胎生placenta胎盘allantois尿囊rumen 瘤胃bursa of fabricius腔上囊masticatory stomach 肌胃reticulum网胃omasum瓣胃abomasum皱胃cochlea耳蜗earthworm 蚯蚓internal naris内鼻孔amniota羊膜动物arthropod节肢动物coelenterate 腔肠动物annelid环节动物cell membrane&plasma membrane细胞膜epithelial tissue上皮组织connective tissue结缔组织cartilage tissue软骨组织osseous tissue骨组织muscular tissue肌肉组织cardiac muscle心肌intercalated disc闰盘Nissl's body 尼氏小体colony &group集体meroblastic cleavage不完整卵裂colonial theory集体说gastrovascular cavity消化循环腔muscle system肌肉系统excretory system排泄系统reproductive system 生殖系统digestive system消化系统archinephric duct原肾管basal lamina & basal membrane基膜cross-fertilization异体受精self-fertilization自体受精final host 终寄主first intermidate host第一中间寄主semicircular canal半规管second intermediate host 第二中间寄主Genetics遗传学heredity遗传variation 变异gene 基因pisum sativum豌豆segregation 分别gamete生殖细胞zygote合子allele等位基因genotype基因型phenotype 表现型test cross测交oryza sativa水稻diploid二倍体haploid单倍体centromere着丝粒satellite随体linker 连丝mitosis 有丝分裂mesoblast 中胚层spindle纺锤体interphase 间期spindle fiber纺锤丝vicia faba蚕豆nucleoplasm核质spermatogenous精原细胞oogonium卵原细胞spermatid精美胞Phenocopy拟表型epistasis上位效应mutant突变型gametic lethal配子致死zygotic lethal合子致死autosome 常染色体dominant lethal显性致死carrier携带者homozygote纯合体heterozygote杂合体genotype基因型phenotype表现型linkage group连锁群interference干预coincidence 并发率genetic map遗传学图wild type 野生型mutation突变heterokaryon异核体auxotroph营养缺点型strain菌株recipient受体donor 供体fragment 片段induction引诱prophage原噬菌体transduction 转导Mendel ’ s laws 孟德尔定律law of segregation分别定律first filial generation子一代parental generation亲代dominant character显性性状recessive character隐性性状hereditary determinant遗传因子parental combination亲组合recombination重组合punnett square 棋盘法Mendelian character孟德尔性状primary constriction初级缢痕secondary constriction次级缢痕nucleolar organizer核仁形成区first polar body第一极体second polar body第二极体sister chromatids姐妹染色单体female gametic nucleus卵核multiple alleles复等位基因sex-chromosome性染色体sex-linked inheritance伴性遗传primary constriction初级缢痕secondary constriction次级缢痕complementary gene互补基因homologous chromosome同源染色体sister chromatids姐妹染色单体secondary oocyte次级卵母细胞three-point testcross三点测交primary spermatocyte初级精母细胞secondary spermatocyte次级精母细胞first division segregation第一次分裂分别second division segregation第二次分裂分别law of independent assortment自由组合定律Biochemistry生物化学essential element必要元素trace elements微量元素proteoglycan蛋白聚糖amino acid氨基酸primary structure一级构造random coil无规卷曲structural domain构造域subunit 亚基degeneration变性adenine腺嘌呤guanine鸟嘌呤cytosine胞嘧啶thymine胸腺嘧啶uracil 尿嘧啶nucleoside核苷nucleotide核苷酸base pairing碱基配对base pair碱基对数base 碱基数gyrase 旋转酶nucleosome核小体complementary DNA互补 DNA plasmid质粒transposons转座子repetitive sequence重复序列exon 外显子intron 内含子variable loop 可变环ribonuclease核糖核酸酶renaturation复性hyperchromic effect添色效应base stacking force碱基聚积力annealing退火melting-out temperature 溶化温度hypochromic effect 减色效应maltose 麦芽糖sucrose蔗糖lactose 乳糖starch淀粉glycogen糖原cellulose 纤维素cellulase纤维素酶selectivity选择性substrate 底物holoenzyme全酶cofactor辅因子coenzyme 辅酶oxidase 氧化酶metabolism新陈代谢assimilation同化作用catabolism异化作用metabolite代谢产物biological oxidation生物氧化cytochrome细胞色素rotenone鱼藤酮amytal 阿密妥antimycin A抗霉素 A cyanide氰化物glycolysis 糖酵解ethanol乙醇citrate 柠檬酸cis-aconitate顺乌头酸succinic acid琥珀酸oxaloacetic acid草酰乙酸acetyl-coenzyme乙酰辅酶fumarate延胡索酸glyoxylate cycle乙醛酸循环malate 苹果酸fatty acid脂肪酸carbon unit一碳单位replicon 复制子core enzyme核心酶primosome引起体Okazaki fragment冈崎片段leading chain前导链lagging strand后随链terminator 停止子telomere 端粒telomerase端粒酶replication fork 复制叉vector 载体promoter启动子terminator 停止子operon操控子codon 密码子degeneracy简并性hormone 激素citric acid cycle柠檬酸循环deamination 脱氨基作用urea cycle尿素循环transfer RNA转移 RNA ribosome RNA核糖体 RNA metabolic regulation代谢调理feedback regulation反应调理structural gene构造基因promoter gene启动基因operator gene操控基因regulator gene调理基因termination factor 停止因子triplet code 三联体密码initiator codon开端密码termination codon停止密码semiconservative replication半保存复制ornithine cycle 鸟氨酸循环ketogenic amino acid生酮氨基酸glucogenic amino acid生糖氨基酸oxidative deamination氧化脱氨作用transamination转氨基作用reverse transcription逆转录decarboxylation脱羧作用semidiscontinuous replication半不连续复制reverse transcriptase逆转录酶missense mutation错义突变synonymous mutation同义突变neutral mutation中性突变nonsense mutation无义突变phosphatidic acid磷脂酸essential amino acids必要氨基酸dihydrouracil loop二氢尿嘧啶环anticodon loop反密码子环double-strand circular DNA双链环形 DNA superhelical DNA超螺旋 DNA open circular DNA开环 DNA linear DNA线形 DNAbase stacking force碱基聚积力secondary structure二级构造super-secondary structure超二级构造tertiary structure三级构造quaternary structure四级构造negative supercoil DNA负超螺旋 DNA positive supercoil DNA正超螺旋 DNAGlyceraldehyde-3-phosphate甘油醛-3-二磷酸glucogenic and ketogenic amino acid生糖兼生酮氨基酸restriction endonuclease限制性内切酶polymerase chain reaction聚合酶链反响精选文库Microbiology 微生物学living creatures生物culture medium 培育基lawn 菌苔culture plate培育平板bacteria细菌archaea古生菌eukaryote真核生物prokaryote原核生物protozoan原生动物hypha 菌丝mycoplasma支原体yeast 酵母菌plasmolysis质壁分别Escherichia Coli 大肠杆菌murein 胞壁质peptidoglycan肽聚糖mucopeptide 黏肽outer membrane 外膜chromosome染色体nucleolus核仁nucleoid拟核chromatin染色质centromere着丝粒telomere端粒protoplast原生质体mycoplasma支原体glycoprotein糖蛋白mesosome间体cytoplasm细胞质megnetosome磁小体nucleoid拟核glycocalyx糖被capsule荚膜flagellum鞭毛lysosome溶酶体chloroplast 叶绿体thylakoid类囊体inorganic salt 无机盐peptone蛋白胨sulfur bacteria硫细菌beef extract牛肉膏vitamin维生素inclusion body内含物lithotroph无机营养型medium培育基agar 琼脂organotroph有机营养型antiport 逆向运输active transport主动运输pinocytosis胞饮作用catabolism 分解代谢passive transport被动运输uniport 单向运输anabolism合成代谢fermentation发酵batch culture 分批培育log phase对数生长久stationary phase 稳固生长久lag phase迟延期decline phase衰灭期aerobe好氧菌antibiotic抗生素antigenome反基因组transformation转变genome基因组plasmid 质粒transforming factor转变因子diploid二倍体haploid单倍体transposable element转座因子conjugation接合作用transposon转座子phenotype 表型genotype 基因型auxotroph 营养缺点型wild-type野生型transition变换transversion颠换spontaneous mutation自觉突变reverse mutation答复突变sexduction性导精选文库recombination repair重组修复repressor 隔绝蛋白corepressor辅隔绝物clone 克隆denaturation变性annealing退火extension延长cloning vector克隆载体replicon复制子telomere端粒cohesive end黏性尾端promoter启动子terminator停止子gene therapy基因治疗phylogeny系统发育ammonification氨化作用nitrification 硝化作用denitrification反硝化作用expression vector表达载体aerobic respiration有氧呼吸anaerobic respiration无氧呼吸origin of replication复制开端点incompatibility不亲和性gene mutation基因突变synonymous mutation同义突变chromosomal aberration染色体畸变missense mutation错义突变frame-shift mutation移码突变lactose operon乳糖操控子negative transcription control负转录调控tryptophan operon色氨酸操控子cytoplasmic inheritance细胞质遗传genetic engineering基因工程recombinant DNA technology重组 DNA 技术palindromic structure回文构造spread plate method涂布平板法pour plate method倾注培育法streak plate method平板划线法shake tube method稀释摇管法continuous culture连续培育。

Ch38 Lecture-Spr11-short

Flower parts are usually borne on a stem tip, and derive from a meristem
Differentiation of the meristem is controlled by specific transcription factors Flower parts are very diverse in form
Nipplewort (Lapsana communis)
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38.1 How Do Angiosperms Reproduce Sexually?
Sexual reproduction involves mitosis and meiosis and alternation of generations.
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38.1 How Do Angiosperms Reproduce Sexually?
In anther, 2n microsporocyte undergoes meiosis to produce four 1n microspores Each develops a spore wall Divides mitotically to form two 1n cells in each pollen grain (microgametophyte)
Navel oranges are seedless, and must be propagated asexually – all descended from one mutant tree

海洋生物中英文专业名词汇总(必看)

Glossary of Biological Terms Abiotic 非生物Abnormalities 畸形Accessibility 易接近Accumulate 积累Act myosin contractile 肌动蛋白Actin 肌动蛋白Activate 启用Adaptation 适应Adhere 黏附Adipose 含动物脂肪的Adjacent邻近的Aerobic好痒的Aerobic有氧Agar 琼脂Alarm警报Albatrosses信天翁Algae藻类Align排成一条线Allele 等位基因Allocation分配Allolactose 异乳糖Allopatric不同域的Allosteric site 变构位点Alternation of generation一代交替Aveoli 肺泡Altitude 高度Ambush埋伏American alligator 美洲短嘴鳄Amino氨基的/氨基Ammonification加氨作用Amoeba 变形虫Amphibian 两栖动物Amphipathic 两性，亲水脂性Amplification 增强；放大Amplification扩大Amplify 放大Anabolic pathway 合成代谢途径Anaphase后期Anchor 锚Anemia贫血Angiosperm被子植物Animalia动物界Antagonistic对抗性的Antelop 羚羊Antibiotic 抗生素Aortic 大动脉的Apoptosis细胞凋亡Aposematic coloration警戒色Appearance外表Apportioned分配Aquaporin 水通道蛋白Aquatic system水生系统Archaea 古生菌Archaeological 考古学Aristotle亚里士多德Armor护甲Asexual reproduction无性繁殖Asexual无性Assemblage 分配，装配Assimilation同化Assort相配Astral microtubules星状微管Atrium 心房Autecology自主Autoradiography射线自显迹法Autotrophs自养Avascular 无血管的Bacteria 细菌Bacteriophage 噬菌体Barnacle 藤壳Barnacle藤壶Beak喙Beaver 海狸Beaver dams海狸坝Beetle甲壳虫Behavioral动作的Binomial二项式Bioaccumulation 生物积累Biochemical生化Biodiversity 生物多样性Biogeochemical 生地化Biomagnification 生物放大作用Biomass 生物量，生物质Biomes 生物群落Biome-Terrestrial life zone陸地生物相Biosynthetic生物合成的Biotic factors生物因子Biotic potential生物潜力Biotic生物Birch桦树Bladder 膀胱Blend with混合Bloodstream血流Bloodworm红虫Blot斑点/污渍Bottom-dwelling底栖的Bromeliads凤梨科植物Bronchi 支气管Brood孵蛋Brown algae 褐藻Brown-headed cowbird棕头牛鹂Bumblebee大黄蜂Bundle 捆Cactus 仙人掌Caddis fly石蛾Cadherin钙黏蛋白Camouflage拟态/伪装Capture捕获Carbohydrate糖类Cardiac 心脏的Carnivores食肉动物Carnivorous 肉食性的Carrying capacity承载能力（K）Cartilage 软骨Catabolic reaction 分解代谢反应Catastrophism劫數難逃論Caterpillar 毛虫Cellular Respiration呼吸作用Cellulose纤维素Centriole中心粒（纺锤体）Centromere着丝粒Centrosome 中心体Chaparral 灌木丛Characteristics特点Chemosynthesis化学合成Chetah 印度豹Chipmunks 花栗鼠Chloroplasts叶绿体Cholesterol 胆固醇Chromatids染色单体Chromatin 染色质Chromosome compaction紧密的染色体Chromosome 染色体Cilia 纤毛Circulatory 循环Clade分支Cladogram分支图Class纲Claw爪Cleavage furrow卵裂沟Climax community顶级群落Clone 克隆Clotting 凝固Clusters 串；群Cluster丛生Cluster群（丛、簇）Coevolution协同进化Coevolve共同进化Coexist共存Cohesions姐妹染色体粘连素Cohesions黏附Colonizers殖民者Commensalism共栖Commensalism偏利共生Communities群落Community of organisms生物群落Competition竞争Complement 补充Complementary 互补Compound化合物Condense凝结Connexin连接蛋白Coniferous forest（Taiga）針葉樹森林Consortium联合Constitutive genes 组成型基因Consumer消费者Consume消耗Continents 大洲Contrasting对比Controversy争论Convergent會聚性的Coping mechanisms应对机制Cortex 皮质Cosmid [生化] 粘粒Counterclockwise逆时针Countermeasures对策Covalently 公价的Crab螃蟹Crash崩溃，骤降Crittercam动物摄像机Crustacean 甲壳类Cryptic Coloration隐蔽色Cuckcoo杜鹃Cuckoo bee寄生蜂Curvature曲率Cyclin-dependent kinases酶Cycling循环Cystic囊的Cytokinesis胞质分裂Cytoplasm 细胞质Cytosine nucleotides 胞嘧啶核苷酸Cytosol =cytoplasm 细胞质Cytosol细胞液Cytosol细胞质Decay 腐烂Deciduous 落叶树Decomposers 分解者Decomposer分解者Decomposition 分解Decomposition分解Decondensed 染色质去浓缩Decoys 圈套；诱捕Deductive reasoning 演绎法Deer鹿Defective细胞周期蛋白依赖性激Defoliate清除植物Deforestation毁灭森林Degradable可降解的Degradation降解Degrading proteins降解蛋白质Demographics人口统计学Denaturing 改变性质Denitrify脱氮Depleted of glucose 耗尽葡萄糖Deposit沉积Derive得到Dermis 真皮Descendants后代Desert 沙漠Desmosomes胞桥体Detected检测Detergents去污剂Detritivore腐食者Detritus腐质；碎屑Diagnoses 诊断Dideoxynucleotide双脱氧核苷酸Diffusion 擴散Digest lactose 消化乳糖Digestion消化Dihybrid cross二元杂种杂交Dihybrid双因子杂种的Dilution稀释Dimethyl二甲基的Diploid and haploid cell二倍体和单倍体细胞Disaccharides二糖Discriminates区别对待Disease 疾病Disease-causing Bacteria病菌Disorders 失调Dispersal mechanisms分散机制Display展现Dissociate分裂Distinct明显Distribution of organisms生物分布Distribution of species物种分布Disturbance干扰Divergent发散，不同，歧Diverse多样化Diversity多样性Dolphin 海豚Domain 域Dominant显性性状Dornase链道酶Droplet液滴Drought干旱；缺乏Dung beetles 蜣螂Duplicated chromosomes重复染色体Duplicated复制Duplication副本Dynamic动力Dynamic biological processes动态生物过程Dynamic动态的Echinodermata 棘皮动物Ecological Niches生态位Ecological role生态作用Ecological生态的Ecology 生态Ecosphere生态圈Ecosystems 生态系统Ectoparasite体外寄生虫Electrophoresis 电泳Eliminate淘汰Elimination （热量）散失Elongated 变长Embryonic胚胎的Embryo胚胎Emissions发射Encode proteins 编码蛋白质Encode 编码Endemic特有的Endocardium 心内膜Endocytosis胞吞Endomembrane内膜Endoparasite体内寄生虫Endoplasmic Reticulum内质网Ensue接踵而至Environmental resistance环境抵抗力Enzyme酶Epicardium 心外膜Epigenetic 后生Epigenetics 实验胚胎学Epiphytes 附生植物Epiphytes附生植物Epithelial 上皮的Erythrocyte红细胞Esophagus 食管Estradiol 雌二醇Euchromatin 常染色质Eukarya真核生物Eukaryotic真核的Eutrophication富营养化Evaporate 使蒸发Evolutionary Divergence进化分歧Evolution演化，进化Evolve进化Exclude排除Exclusion排除Excreted排出Excretion排泄Excretory 排泄器官Exert 发挥Exhale呼气Exhibit呈现Exocytosis胞吐Expense消耗Exploitative competition剥削性竞争External外部的Extinction灭绝Extinct绝种Extreme极端的Facilitation 促进Facultative兼性Family科Fang叮咬Feature特征Fecundity繁殖力Ferns蕨類植物Fertilization受精Fertilize使受孕Fertilized已受精的Fetal 胎儿的Fibers纤维Fibrocartilage 纤维软骨Fibrosis纤维化Filament单纤维Filament长丝Filtration 过滤Finch雀Fitness健康Flagella 鞭毛Flagship 旗舰Flee逃离Flower fly食蚜蝇Fluorescent 发亮的Food chains 食物链Food consumption食物消费Food web 食物网Foothold 据点Forensic辩论的Fragmentation 分裂Fragments of nuclear envelope核膜的碎片Fragments 碎片Fundamental niche基础利基Fungal真菌Fungi 真菌Gametes配子Gametophyte配子體Genetic Diversity遗传多样性Genetic storehouse 遗传基因库Genetics遗传学Genome 基因组Genotype基因型Genus (genera)属Geologic地质学上的Glaciers 冰川Glandular 腺的Glucose葡萄糖Glycoprotein 糖蛋白Graft移植Granules颗粒剂Grasshopper蚂蚱Grasslands 草原Grazers 食草动物Gymnosperm裸子植物Habitat 栖息地Haploid spores单倍体孢子Haploid单倍体，仅有一组染色体的细胞; 单一的Hawks 鹰Hazardous 有危险的Helix螺旋Hemisphere半球Hemophilia血友病Hepatitis肝炎Herbicides除草剂Herbivore草食动物Herbivores 食草动物Herbs 草本植物Herd兽群Heredity遗传Herring gull鲱鱼鸥Heterochromatin 异染色质Heterotroph异养生物Hide躲藏Hierarchical分级Histone 组蛋白History traits历史特征Homeostasis动态平衡Homeostatic稳态Homologous chromosomes同源染色体Homologous同源的Homozygous同型结合的，纯合子的Honeycreepers枸杞子hormonal 激素的host寄主Host宿主Hyaline 透明的Hybridization杂交Hybrid混合的Hydrophilic亲水性Hydration水化Hydrocarbons碳氢化合物Hydrophobic 恐水性Hypertonic高渗压Hypothesis假设Hypotonic低渗压Impose施加Imprinting 印记Inactivate灭活Inactivating使不活动Incapable不会的Inclusions包裹体Incorporates 合并Incorporate吸收Incorporation参入Indicator 指示者Individual个体Inducible operon 可诱导操纵子Inducible 诱导Inductive reasoning 归纳法Infectious diseases传染性疾病Ingested摄入Inherited 遗传Inherit继承Inhibit synthesis抑制合成Inhibit抑制Insecticidal杀虫的Insulin胰岛素Interaction相互作用Interdependent相互依存Interference competition干扰竞争Interference干扰Interphase分裂间期Interspecific competition种间竞争Interspecific种间Intestine 肠Intracellular细胞内Intraspecific种内Intrinsic rate of increase内在增长率Introns 内含子Invade入侵Invasive 侵略性的Invertebrates无脊椎动物Involuntary 无意识的Isotonic等渗的Isotopes同位素Karyotype核型Kelp Forests海带森林Keratins 角蛋白类Keystone重点Keystone species 阶梯物种Kidney 肾脏Kinases 激酶；致活酶Kinetochore microtubule (chromosome spindle fiber) 动粒微管Kinetochore着丝粒Kingdom界Kite 鸢Krill磷虾Kudzu 野葛Lactose repressor protein 乳糖阻遏蛋白Lag phase滞后期Lake trout湖鳟鱼Lamprey七鳃鳗Larvae幼虫Latitude 纬度Lay egg产卵Leach溶解出Leeches水蛭Lichens 地衣Lichen青苔Life span寿命Ligase. [生化] 连接酶Limited有限的Linnaeus林奈Loci轨迹Locus核心; Longhorn beetle天牛Longitude 经度Lysosome溶酶体Machinery 机器Mackerel鲭鱼Macromolecules大分子Malicious恶意的Mammalian哺乳动物Manipulate调整Marine Ecology海洋生态学Maternal母系Mating交配Matrix基质Mayfly 蜉蝣类Mechanisms机制Meiosis减数分裂Mercury contamination 汞污染Metabolic新陈代谢Metabolism新陈代谢Metabolite, 代谢物Metabolized 代谢Metaphase plate赤道板Metaphase中期Methylation 甲基化Microarrays微数列Microscopic微观的Microtubule 微管Microtubule-organizing center微管组织中心Microvilli 微绒毛Mimicry模仿Misconception 错觉Mitochondrial 线粒体的Mitochondria线粒体Mitosis 有丝分裂Mitotic spindle有丝分裂纺锤体Mitotic 有丝分裂的Modification修改Modified 修改Moisten 使变得湿润Moisture湿度Molecules分子Mollusca贝类Monarch君主Monera原核动物Monohybrid单因子杂种Morphological capabilities形态能力Morphological形态的Morphology形态Mortality死亡Mosses苔藓Moth蛾Mutant 基因突变Mutations变异/突变Mutualism互利共生Mutually Exclusive Events互斥事件Myocardium 心肌层Myosin 肌凝蛋白Native当地的Neurofilaments 神经丝Neurons神经元Niche生态位Niche Population Ecology利基人口生态学Nomenclature命名法Nonbiodegradable 非生物可降解的Nonliving factors非生物因素Nonnative (invasive or alien) 外来的Nonpoisonous无毒性的Nourishment营养Nuclear envelope核膜Nuclei原子核Nucleoid类核，病毒核心Nucleosome核小体Nucleotide 核甘酸Nutrient营养成分Oak橡木Obligate专性Ocean communities海洋社区Octopus章鱼Offspring子孙Oogenesis卵子发生Optimal condition真核Order目Organelles细胞器Organisms个体Organism生物Organs & Organ Sy stems器官Orthologous直系同源Osmosis渗透Osseous 骨的Overlaps重叠Overuse过度使用Owls猫头鹰P. bursaria茯苓Paleontology古生物學Palindromic 复发Paramecium caudatum草履虫Parasite寄生生物Parasitic Mistletoe槲寄生Parasitic寄生Parasitoid寄生蜂Partially部分Particularly特别，尤其Partitioning分配Partition划分Paternal父亲的Paternity 父亲身份Pathogens病原体Patterns模式Peat泥炭Pedigree血统Penguins企鹅Peptide肽Pericardium 心包膜Periodic周期的；定期的Peripheral外围的，次要的Periphyton algae附着藻类Permafrost 永久冻土Permeability 渗透性Permeable透水的Permease 透性酶Peroxisome 过氧物酶Pest 害虫Pesticides农药Petrels 海燕Phagocytosis胞噬作用Pharmaceutical 制药的Pharming药物生产Phenotype表现型/显型Phenotypic 表现型Phloem （植物）韌皮部Phosphatases 磷酸酶Phospholipids磷脂Phosphorylating磷酸化Photosynthesis光合作用Photosynthetic prokaryotes 光合原核生物Phylum门Physical interactions物理交互physiological tolerance limits生理耐受极限Physiological生理Phytoplankton浮游生物Pigments色素Pine 松树Pinocytosis胞饮作用Plantae植物界Plasm血浆Plasma membrane原生质膜（浆膜）Plasma血浆Plasmid 质粒Plasminogen血纤维蛋白溶酶原Plasmolysis质壁分离Plastids质体Pliable 容易弯的Polio/poliomyelitis 小儿麻痹症Pollen 花粉Pollinate 给…传授花粉Pollination 授粉Pollinators传粉者Polyadenylated 聚腺苷酸化Polymerase 聚合酶Polymorphism 多态性Polypeptide 多肽Polyploidy多倍体Polysaccharide多糖Population dieback or crash人口倒退或崩溃Population dispersion人口分散Population dynamics人口动态Population ecology人口生态学Populations种群Pose提出…讨论Posttranscriptional Regulation 转录后调节Posttranscriptional 转录后Potential潜在的Prairies （尤指北美的）大草原Precipitation 沉淀/降水量Precursors 前体细胞Predation捕食Predator捕食者Predatory 捕食的Predator捕食者Predominate 占支配地位Prey猎物Producers生产者Projection投影作用Prokaryotes原核生物Proliferate迅速繁殖Prolonged drought 持续干旱Prometaphase中前期Prophase前期Proteases 蛋白酶proteasome 蛋白酶体Proteins蛋白质Proteolytic 水解蛋白的Protista原生动物界Protists原生生物Protozoans原生动物Pseudopodia 假足Pseudostratified 假复层Puffer fish河豚鱼Pulmonary 肺部的Pursuit追赶Radioactively 放射性Rainforest 雨林區Rat鼠Recapture收回Receptormediated受体Recessive 隐性的Recombinant 重组体Recombinant重组Recovery zone 回收区域Reductionism简化论Reenter重返Refuge藏身处Regulate调节Regulatory 监管的Replicated复制Repressor 终止子Reproductive time lag生殖时滞Requirements for moisture水分要求Resemble类似于Reservoirs贮藏所Resource partitioning资源分区Resource资源Respiration呼吸（作用）Respiratory 呼吸的Restriction限制Retreat 撤退Retroviruses逆转录酶病毒Rhinoceros 犀牛Ribosome 核糖体RNA polymerase RNA聚合酶Roundworm蛔虫ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) Runoff径流Salamanders蝾螈Saliva 唾液Sandbar 沙洲Saturated饱和Savanna 熱帶稀树草原Scaffolds 支架Scattered分散的Scavengers食腐动物Sea otter海獭Sea urchins海胆Seaweed （大型）海藻Seal海豹Secondary succession 次生演替Secrete分泌Secretion 分泌Sediments沉淀物Segment 部分Segregate隔离; 分离; 分开; 隔离并区别对待Segregation种族隔离; 分离，隔离; 分离，偏析; 熔析Selective选择的Sense感官Sensory 感官的Septic zone 脓毒性区域Sequencing排序Sequester螯合剂Sexual有性Shark fins 鱼翅Shrews 鼩Shrub灌木Shrublands 灌丛Shuffled洗牌Sickle镰刀Simplify简化Simultaneous同时发生Skeleton 骨架Skunks 臭鼬Slightly略微Snail蜗牛Somatic体壁（躯体）的Space utilization空间利用Specialization专门化Speciation物種形成Species种Spermatogenesis精子发生Sperm精子Spinal 脊柱的Spindle 纺锤体Spliced 拼接Spontaneous自发的Sporophyte孢子体Spotted owl斑点猫头鹰Spot认出Sprays喷雾Squamous 有鳞片的Squid 乌贼Starches (plants) glycogen (animal) 糖原Stem茎Stimulates transcription 刺激转录Stimulate激发Stimuli刺激Stinging刺伤Strain张力Strategies策略Submersible潜水Substrate基质/底层Substrate 基质Subtropica 亚热带Subunit 子单元Succession演替，消长Succulents 多肉植物Suppressor 抑制器Survivorship curve存活曲线Symbiosis合作关系，共生Sympatric lizard同源蜥蜴Sympatric同域的Synapsed homologues复发同系物Synapse突触Synapsis联会Synecology对症治疗Synecology细菌学Synthesis 合成Synthesize 合成Synthesized综合.v Tadpole蝌蚪Taiga 针叶树林地带Tail 尾巴Tainted感染的Tandemly 串联Tandem串联Taxonomic分类法Telophase末期Termination 终止Terminology 术语Terrestrial Plants 陆生植物Terrestrial陆生的Terrestrial陆地的Territory领土Test Cross测交The Biosphere生物圈Theoretical理论Therapeutic治疗的Thylakoid内囊体Ticks蜱Tissues组织Titmouse山雀Tolerance容忍Toxic有毒的Trachea 气管、导管Tracheophyte导管植物Traits性状Transacetylase转乙酰酶Transcriptase 转录酶Transcription转录Translating翻译Transmitted传输（送）Trash fish杂鱼Trophic structure 营养结构Trophic营养的Tropical 热带Troponin 肌钙蛋白Trout鳟鱼Trunk树干Tryptophan operon 色氨酸操纵子Tumefaciens 遗传转化Tumor 肿块Tuna金枪鱼Tundra 冻原带Turgor肿胀Twigs树枝Ubiquitin 泛激素Uncoil解开Uncultivated未经耕作的Unpalatable难吃的Upheaval动荡Ureter 输尿管Urethra 尿道Vaccine疫苗；牛痘苗Vacuole液泡Vegetational 植被的Venom毒液Ventricle 心室Vent通风孔Vertebrate 脊椎动物Vesicle囊泡Vestigial 尚留有痕跡的Viral 病毒性的Vitellogenin 卵黄蛋白原Vulnerable弱势的Weasel 黄鼠狼Whales 鲸鱼Whiplik 鞭形Wildebeests 角马Worm虫Xylem（植物）木質部Yellow jacket wasp小黄蜂Zebra mussel斑马贝Zebrafish斑马鱼Zooplankton浮游动物Zygote受精卵。

农学常用专业词汇

Abscission （脱落）果实或叶片与植株分离的自然过程；果实在成熟期而叶片在秋季发生。

Air drainage （空气流泄）湿重的冷空气向较低水平运动。

Bearing （结实）植株或植株的一部分产生果实。

Blight （枯萎）植株从顶端到基部逐渐变萎蔫干燥。

Bloom 1.花或花瓣；2.植物开花的发育阶段；3.成熟蓝莓果实表层白色、蜡状材料。

Blossom 花Bud（芽）叶片基本一个未发育成的茎，次年春季会发育成一个花序或者营养枝。

Bud swell （芽膨大期）早春时就在芽萌发前芽膨大的阶段。

Bud break （萌发）春季芽里的枝条第一次伸长的阶段。

Calyx （花萼）花瓣下面螺旋状着生的变态叶，最终发育成蓝莓果实的果蒂痕。

Can e（茎）植株基部发生的、生长到树冠上层的木本茎。

Canker （溃疡）由病原菌引起的茎上狭长或圆形含有干燥或死亡组织的区域。

Chilling period （需冷量）静止或休眠芽对低温的需求，通常用7.2 ℃以下低温时数来衡量。

Chlorosis （黄化）植物部分组织上浅绿色或黄色着色，而正常着色为深绿色。

Clean cultivation （清洁栽培）行间进行常规栽培或耕作以除去所有不想要的植物。

Cluster 从一个花芽发育来的一簇花或果实。

Conidia （分生孢子）由真菌菌丝产生的无性孢子。

Cross-pollination （杂交授粉）卵细胞与来自其他植株的花粉受精。

Crown （根颈）蓝莓植株地下发生茎和根的区域。

Desication （干化）植物部分组织变干燥，引起畸形或组织坏死。

Dormancy （休眠）芽暂停活跃生长保持静止的阶段。

Drift （飘移）喷施（药剂）时由各种原因（风等）而喷到了本不打算喷施的地方。

Economic threshold （经济阀值）害虫数量水平，在这个水平以内采取控制措施是经济合算的。

Endopa rasites （体内寄生虫）在植物内内部觅食的生物。

Graphene Oxide Preparation, Functionalization, and Electrochemical Applications

© XXXX American Chemi21/cr300115g | Chem. Rev. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
Chemical Reviews primarily due to the uncertainty pertaining to both the nature and distribution of the oxygen-containing functional groups,44 its nonstoichiometric atomic composition, and the lack of suﬃciently sensitive analytical techniques for characterizing the GO structure. In reality, GO incarnates various nanoscale inhomogeneities in its structure, and the stoichiometry varies depending on the synthesis protocol as well as the extent of the reaction. In fact, the ideal stoichiometry has never been achieved. The oxygenated groups in GO can strongly aﬀect its electronic, mechanical, and electrochemical properties. Hence they account for the diﬀerences between GO and pristine graphene.45 Compared with pristine graphene, on the one hand, the covalent oxygenated functional groups in GO can indeed give rise to remarkable structure defects. This is concomitant with some loss in electrical conductivity,46 which possibly limits the direct application of GO in electrically active materials and devices. On the other hand, the presence of these functional groups can also provide potential advantages for using GO in numerous other applications. The reasons are as follows: ﬁrst the polar oxygen functional groups of GO render it strongly hydrophilic. This gives GO good dispersibility in many solvents, particularly in water.7,47−49 This is important for processing and further derivatization. The resulting GO-stable dispersion can be subsequently deposited on various substrates in order to prepare thin conductive ﬁlms by means of common methods such as drop-casting, spraying, or spin-coating.43 These can be used as excellent electrode materials. In addition, using well-known chemistry strategies, these functional groups serve as sites for chemical modiﬁcation or functionalization of GO, which in turn can be employed to immobilize various electroactive species through covalent or noncovalent bonds for the design of sensitive electrochemical systems. Therefore, the chemical composition of GO, which can be chemically, thermally, or electrochemically engineered, allows the tunability of its physicochemical properties.41,50,51 For example, by appropriately ﬁne-tuning the oxidation or reduction parameters with a view to controlling the structural disorder, GO can be made into an insulating, semiconducting, or semimetallic material. Although the unique relativistic nature of charge carriers and other condensed-matter eﬀects that are observed in “nearly ideal” graphene are absent in GO, accessibility, ease of synthesis, solution processability, and its versatile properties make it attractive for fundamental research as well as in applications.41 The study of GO-based materials in recent years has been popular and extensive, particularly with respect to electrochemical applications. Underpinning the signiﬁcance of GObased materials in electrochemistry are the very speciﬁc properties that although relevant to GO are not typical of pristine graphene. These include its facile synthesis, high dispersibility in a range of solvents, capability of coupling electroactive species onto the surface, and unique optical properties (such as ﬂuorescence labels52). In addition, the use of GO-based materials also provides control over the local microenvironment. This is because in most cases GO-based materials can be deposited, with extremely well-deﬁned surfaces, through solution processing. This can be highly advantageous when incorporating sensitive or electroactive species into an electrochemical system. Another important issue is consideration of the costs when manufacturing an electrode for use in any real system. In terms of the manufacture of GObased devices, costs can be reduced compared with the costs for conventional electrodes. This is because only a fraction of the

生物学专业英语词汇

Botany植物学Cell theory细胞学说 cell membrane细胞膜 nucleus 细胞核Organelle 细胞器 cell wall细胞壁 cytoplasm细胞质 protoplast原生质体cell cycle细胞周期 mitochondrion 线粒体photosynthesis光合作用 unit membrane 单位膜 chloroplast 叶绿体chlorophyll叶绿素 xanthophyll叶黄素carotene胡萝卜素 golgiosome高尔基体 ribosome 核糖体 lysosome溶酶体microfilament微丝 nuclear fission核分裂 reproduction繁殖 primary wall 初生壁 secondary wall次生壁 plasmodesma胞间连丝 mitosis有丝分裂amitosis无丝分裂 meiosis减数分裂 cytokinesis胞质分裂 interphase间期 prophase前期 metaphase中期 anaphase后期telophase末期 tissue组织 pistil 雌蕊 stamen雄蕊ovary子房 pollination传粉 pollen tube花粉管porogamy珠孔受精 chalazogamy合点受精 mesogamy中部受精apomixis无融合生殖 apogamy无配子生殖 patrogenesis孤雄生殖parthenogensis 孤雌生殖apospory无孢子生殖 pericarp果皮life history生活史 root system根系 main root主根 lateral root侧根 taproot system直根系 fibrous root system须根系 cortex皮层vascular cylinder 维管柱 pericycle中柱鞘 xylem ray 木射线 vascular ray 维管射线 phloem ray韧皮射线 root cap根冠 Casparian strip凯氏带 primary xylem初生木质部 primary phloem初生韧皮部 vascular ray 维管射线 xylem ray 木射线 phelloderm栓内层 phloem ray韧皮射线embryo胚homologous organ同源器官 analogous organ同功器官 endosperm胚乳seed coat种皮 radicle胚根 plumule胚芽 hypocotyl下胚轴cotyledon子叶 dormancy休眠 seed germination种子萌发eukaryote真核生物 prokaryote原核生物 algae藻类 blue-green algae蓝藻 trichogyne受精丝mucopolysaccharide黏多糖 gelatinous sheath 胶质鞘 exospore外生孢子heterosexual cell异性细胞 green algae绿藻 isogamy同配生殖 anisogamy异配生殖 anisogamy 卵式生殖 zygogamy 接合生殖haploid单倍体diploid二倍体 polyploid多倍体carposporophyte孢子体 brown algae褐藻 sea-tangle海带 agar琼脂 fungi菌类 parasitism寄生saprophytic腐生的 lichen 地衣 archegonium颈卵器 antheridium精子器 antiphyte孢子体gametophyte配子体 protonema原丝体 bryophyta 苔藓植物cruciferae十字花科vascular plants微管植物 aquatic plant水生植物 salicaceae杨柳科angiosperm被子植物 endoplasmic reticulum内质网 vegetative reproduction营养繁殖 intercellular layer胞间层phellogen& cork cambium木栓形成层 asexual reproduction无性繁殖sexual propagation有性繁殖 tetradynamous stamen四强雄蕊didynamous stamen二强雄蕊 monodelphous stamen单体雄蕊diadelphous stamen二体雄蕊 triadelphous stamen三体雄蕊polyadelphous stamens多体雄蕊synantherous stamen聚药雄蕊primary wall cells初生壁细胞 vegetative cell营养细胞male sterility雄性不育 filiform apparatus丝状器 meristem zone 分生区 elongation zone伸长区 maturation zone成熟区embryophyte有胚植物specific parasitism专性寄生 specific saprophyte专性腐生facultative parasitism兼性寄生 facultative saprophyte兼性腐生sexual generation有性世代 asexual generation无性世代Zoology动物学cell细胞 prokaryotic cell原核细胞 eukaryotic cell真核细胞protein蛋白质 nucleic acid核酸 carbohydrate糖lipid脂质 protoplasm原生质 inclusion内含物cell cycle细胞周期 pulmonary alveolus肺泡 flagellum鞭毛 food vacuole 食物泡 pinocytosis胞饮作用 fission裂体生殖 microgamete小配子zygote合子 microtubule微管 contraction silk 收缩丝 merogenesis 卵裂blastocoele 囊胚腔 complete cleavage完全卵裂 layering分层 cynapse 突触 myoneme肌丝 myocyte肌细胞 mesoglea中胶层 monoecism雌雄同体 dioecism雌雄异体 velum缘膜radial symmetry辐射对称 nerve net神经网 planula 浮浪幼虫bilateral symmetry两侧对称 mesoderm中胚层 tubule cell 管细胞 osmoregulation渗透调节 acetabulum 腹吸盘 oral sucker口吸盘 metacercaria囊蚴pseudocoel假体腔 cuticle角质膜cloacal pore泄殖孔 renette腺肾细 emunctory排泄管 resting egg休眠卵 metamere体节 metamerism分节现象 sense organ 感觉器 periostracum壳皮层 prismatic layer壳层 nacreous layer珍珠层veliger 面盘幼虫 glochidium 钩介幼虫 adductor闭壳肌segmentation异律分节 linear animal线形动物 pericardial cavity围心腔cervical vertebra颈椎 sacral vertebra荐椎pulmonary vein肺静脉 precaval vein 前腔静脉 bladder气囊middle ear中耳 tympanum cavity中耳腔 amnion羊膜neopallium新皮层 lagena 瓶状囊 wishbone叉骨postcaval vein后腔静脉 glandular stomach腺胃 air sac气囊salt gland盐腺 sclerotic ring 巩膜骨 viviparity胎生placenta胎盘 allantois尿囊 rumen瘤胃bursa of fabricius 腔上囊 masticatory stomach肌胃 reticulum网胃omasum瓣胃 abomasum皱胃 cochlea耳蜗earthworm蚯蚓 internal naris内鼻孔 amniota羊膜动物arthropod节肢动物 coelenterate腔肠动物 annelid环节动物cell membrane&plasma membrane细胞膜 epithelial tissue上皮组织connective tissue结缔组织 cartilage tissue软骨组织osseous tissue骨组织 muscular tissue肌肉组织cardiac muscle心肌 intercalated disc闰盘Nissl's body尼氏小体 colony &group群体meroblastic cleavage不完全卵裂 colonial theory 群体说gastrovascular cavity消化循环腔 muscle system肌肉体系excretory system排泄系统 reproductive system生殖系统digestive system消化系统 archinephric duct原肾管basal lamina & basal membrane基膜 cross-fertilization异体受精self-fertilization自体受精 final host终寄主first intermidate host第一中间寄主 semicircular canal半规管second intermediate host第二中间寄主Genetics遗传学heredity 遗传 variation 变异 gene 基因pisum sativum 豌豆segregation 分离 gamete 生殖细胞zygote 合子 allele 等位基因 genotype 基因型 phenotype 表现型test cross 测交 oryza sativa 水稻diploid 二倍体 haploid 单倍体 centromere 着丝粒satellite 随体 linker 连丝 mitosis 有丝分裂mesoblast中胚层 spindle 纺锤体 interphase 间期spindle fiber 纺锤丝vicia faba蚕豆 nucleoplasm 核质spermatogenous 精原细胞 oogonium 卵原细胞 spermatid 精细胞Phenocopy 拟表型 epistasis上位效应 mutant突变型gametic lethal配子致死 zygotic lethal合子致死 autosome 常染色体dominant lethal显性致死 carrier 携带者 homozygote 纯合体heterozygote 杂合体 genotype 基因型 phenotype 表现型linkage group 连锁群 interference 干涉 coincidence 并发率 genetic map 遗传学图 wild type野生型 mutation 突变heterokaryon 异核体auxotroph 营养缺陷型 strain 菌株recipient 受体 donor 供体 fragment 片段 induction 诱导prophage 原噬菌体 transduction 转导Mendel’s laws 孟德尔定律 law of segregation 分离定律first filial generation 子一代 parental generation 亲代dominant character 显性性状 recessive character 隐性性状hereditary determinant 遗传因子 parental combination 亲组合 recombination 重组合 punnett square 棋盘法Mendelian character 孟德尔性状 primary constriction 初级缢痕secondary constriction 次级缢痕 nucleolar organizer 核仁形成区first polar body 第一极体 second polar body 第二极体sister chromatids 姐妹染色单体 female gametic nucleus 卵核multiple alleles 复等位基因 sex-chromosome性染色体sex-linked inheritance 伴性遗传 primary constriction 初级缢痕secondary constriction 次级缢痕 complementary gene互补基因homologous chromosome 同源染色体 sister chromatids 姐妹染色单体secondary oocyte 次级卵母细胞 three-point testcross 三点测交primary spermatocyte 初级精母细胞secondary spermatocyte 次级精母细胞first division segregation 第一次分裂分离second division segregation 第二次分裂分离law of independent assortment 自由组合定律Biochemistry 生物化学essential element必需元素 trace elements微量元素 proteoglycan蛋白聚糖amino acid氨基酸 primary structure 一级结构 random coil无规卷曲structural domain 结构域 subunit亚基 degeneration变性adenine腺嘌呤guanine鸟嘌呤 cytosine胞嘧啶thymine胸腺嘧啶 uracil尿嘧啶nucleoside 核苷nucleotide核苷酸 base pairing碱基配对 base pair碱基对数base碱基数 gyrase旋转酶 nucleosome核小体complementary DNA互补DNA plasmid质粒 transposons转座子repetitive sequence重复序列 exon外显子 intron内含子variable loop可变环 ribonuclease核糖核酸酶 renaturation复性hyperchromic effect增色效应 base stacking force碱基堆积力 annealing退火melting-out temperature熔解温度 hypochromic effect减色效应 maltose麦芽糖sucrose蔗糖 lactose乳糖 starch淀粉glycogen糖原 cellulose纤维素 cellulase纤维素酶selectivity选择性substrate底物 holoenzyme全酶cofactor辅因子 coenzyme辅酶oxidase氧化酶metabolism新陈代谢 assimilation同化作用 catabolism异化作用metabolite代谢产物 biological oxidation 生物氧化 cytochrome细胞色素rotenone鱼藤酮 amytal阿密妥 antimycin A抗霉素Acyanide氰化物 glycolysis糖酵解 ethanol乙醇citrate柠檬酸 cis-aconitate 顺乌头酸 succinic acid琥珀酸oxaloacetic acid草酰乙酸 acetyl-coenzyme乙酰辅酶 fumarate延胡索酸glyoxylate cycle 乙醛酸循环 malate苹果酸 fatty acid 脂肪酸carbon unit一碳单位 replicon复制子 core enzyme 核心酶primosome引发体 Okazaki fragment冈崎片段 leading chain 前导链lagging strand后随链terminator终止子 telomere端粒telomerase端粒酶 replication fork复制叉vector载体promoter启动子 terminator终止子 operon操纵子codon密码子 degeneracy简并性 hormone激素citric acid cycle 柠檬酸循环 deamination脱氨基作用 urea cycle尿素循环euchromatin常染色质 messenger RNA信使RNAtransfer RNA转移RNA ribosome RNA核糖体RNAmetabolic regulation代谢调节 feedback regulation反馈调节structural gene结构基因 promoter gene启动基因operator gene操纵基因 regulator gene调节基因termination factor终止因子 triplet code三联体密码initiator codon起始密码 termination codon终止密码semiconservative replication半保留复制 ornithine cycle鸟氨酸循环ketogenic amino acid生酮氨基酸 glucogenic amino acid生糖氨基酸oxidative deamination氧化脱氨作用 transamination转氨基作用reverse transcription逆转录 decarboxylation脱羧作用semidiscontinuous replication半不连续复制 reverse transcriptase 逆转录酶missense mutation错义突变 synonymous mutation同义突变neutral mutation中性突变 nonsense mutation无义突变phosphatidic acid 磷脂酸 essential amino acids 必需氨基酸dihydrouracil loop二氢尿嘧啶环 anticodon loop反密码子环double-strand circular DNA 双链环形DNA superhelical DNA 超螺旋DNA open circular DNA 开环DNA linear DNA 线形DNAbase stacking force 碱基堆积力 secondary structure二级结构super-secondary structure超二级结构 tertiary structure三级结构quaternary structure四级结构 negative supercoil DNA负超螺旋DNA positive supercoil DNA正超螺旋DNAGlyceraldehyde-3-phosphate甘油醛-3-二磷酸glucogenic and ketogenic amino acid生糖兼生酮氨基酸restriction endonuclease限制性内切酶polymerase chain reaction聚合酶链反应Microbiology微生物学living creatures 生物 culture medium 培养基 lawn菌苔culture plate 培养平板 bacteria 细菌 archaea 古生菌 eukaryote真核生物 prokaryote 原核生物 protozoan 原生动物hypha 菌丝 mycoplasma 支原体 yeast 酵母菌 plasmolysis 质壁分离Escherichia Coli大肠杆菌 murein胞壁质 peptidoglycan 肽聚糖 mucopeptide 黏肽 outer membrane外膜 chromosome染色体 nucleolus 核仁nucleoid 拟核chromatin 染色质 centromere 着丝粒 telomere 端粒 protoplast 原生质体mycoplasma 支原体 glycoprotein 糖蛋白mesosome 间体 cytoplasm细胞质 megnetosome磁小体 nucleoid拟核glycocalyx 糖被 capsule 荚膜flagellum 鞭毛 lysosome 溶酶体 chloroplast 叶绿体 thylakoid类囊体inorganic salt 无机盐 peptone 蛋白胨sulfur bacteria 硫细菌 beef extract牛肉膏 vitamin 维生素 inclusion body 内含物 lithotroph 无机营养型 medium 培养基agar 琼脂 organotroph 有机营养型 antiport 逆向运输active transport 主动运输 pinocytosis 胞饮作用 catabolism 分解代谢passive transport 被动运输 uniport 单向运输 anabolism 合成代谢 fermentation发酵batch culture 分批培养 log phase 对数生长期stationary phase 稳定生长期 lag phase 迟缓期 decline phase衰亡期aerobe 好氧菌 antibiotic 抗生素 antigenome 反基因组transformation 转化 genome 基因组 plasmid 质粒transforming factor 转化因子 diploid 二倍体 haploid 单倍体transposable element 转座因子 conjugation接合作用 transposon转座子phenotype 表型 genotype基因型 auxotroph营养缺陷型 wild-type野生型transition 转换 transversion 颠换spontaneous mutation 自发突变 reverse mutation 回复突变 sexduction 性导transduction 转导 promoter 启动子 operon 操纵子recombination repair 重组修复 repressor 阻遏蛋白 corepressor辅阻遏物clone 克隆 denaturation 变性 annealing 退火 extension 延伸cloning vector 克隆载体 replicon 复制子telomere 端粒 cohesive end 黏性末端 promoter 启动子 terminator 终止子gene therapy 基因治疗 phylogeny 系统发育ammonification 氨化作用 nitrification 硝化作用 denitrification 反硝化作用expression vector 表达载体aerobic respiration有氧呼吸 anaerobic respiration无氧呼吸origin of replication 复制起始点 incompatibility 不亲和性 gene mutation 基因突变 synonymous mutation 同义突变chromosomal aberration 染色体畸变 missense mutation 错义突变 frame-shift mutation 移码突变 lactose operon 乳糖操纵子negative transcription control 负转录调控 tryptophan operon 色氨酸操纵子cytoplasmic inheritance 细胞质遗传 genetic engineering 基因工程recombinant DNA technology 重组DNA技术 palindromic structure 回文结构spread plate method 涂布平板法 pour plate method 倾注培养法 streak plate method 平板划线法 shake tube method 稀释摇管法continuous culture 连续培养。

生物学英语复试题及答案

生物学英语复试题及答案一、选择题1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of living organisms?A. Growth and developmentB. ReproductionC. ResponsivenessD. Inertia2. What is the basic unit of life?A. CellB. TissueC. OrganD. Organ system3. What is the process of photosynthesis?A. The conversion of light energy into chemical energyB. The conversion of chemical energy into light energyC. The conversion of heat energy into chemical energyD. The conversion of chemical energy into heat energy4. What is the primary function of chlorophyll in plants?A. To absorb light energyB. To store chemical energyC. To release oxygenD. To produce water5. What is the main component of the cell membrane?A. ProteinsB. LipidsC. CarbohydratesD. Nucleic acids二、填空题6. The genetic material of all living organisms is either__________ or __________.7. The process by which organisms adapt to their environment is called __________.8. In eukaryotic cells, the organelles that are responsible for energy production are __________.9. The basic structural and functional unit of a protein is the __________.10. The process of an organism developing from a fertilized egg into a mature individual is known as __________.三、简答题11. Explain the role of DNA in the cell.12. Describe the process of cellular respiration.13. What are the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?四、论述题14. Discuss the importance of biodiversity and the threats itfaces.五、翻译题15. Translate the following sentence into English:“细胞分裂是生物体生长和发育的基本过程。

念珠菌生物性状及致病性(英文)

R E V I E W A R T I C L ECandida glabrata ,Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis:biology ,epidemiology ,pathogenicityand antifungal resistanceS ´onia Silva 1,Melyssa Negri 1,Mariana Henriques 1,Ros ´ario Oliveira 1,David W.Williams 2&Joana Azeredo 11Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering,Universidade do Minho,Campus de Gualtar,Braga,Portugal;and 2Tissue Engineering &Reparative Dentistry,School of Dentistry,Heath Park,Cardiff,UKCorrespondence:Mariana Henriques,Institute for Biotechnology andBioengineering,Universidade do Minho,Campus de Gualtar 4710-057,Braga,Portugal.Tel.:1351253604408;fax:1351253604429;e-mail:mcrh@deb.uminho.pt Received 29December 2010;revised 31March 2011;accepted 6May 2011.DOI:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00278.x Editor:Martin KupiecKeywordsCandida species;candidosis;epidemiology;virulence factors;antifungal resistance.AbstractThe incidence of infections caused by Candida species (candidosis)has increased considerably over the past three decades,mainly due to the rise of the AIDS epidemic,an increasingly aged population,higher numbers of immunocompro-mised patients and the more widespread use of indwelling medical devices.Candida albicans is the main cause of candidosis;however,non-C.albicans Candida (NCAC)species such as Candida glabrata ,Candida tropicalis and Candida parapsilosis are now frequently identiﬁed as human pathogens.The apparent increased emergence of these species as human pathogens can be attributed to improved identiﬁcation methods and also associated with the degree of diseases of the patients,the interventions that they were subjected and the drugs used.Candida pathogenicity is facilitated by a number of virulence factors,most importantly adherence to host surfaces including medical devices,bioﬁlm forma-tion and secretion of hydrolytic enzymes (e.g.proteases,phospholipases and haemolysins).Furthermore,despite extensive research to identify pathogenic factors in fungi,particularly in C.albicans ,relatively little is known about NCAC species.This review provides information on the current state of knowledge on the biology,identiﬁcation,epidemiology,pathogenicity and antifungal resistance of C.glabrata ,C.parapsilosis and C.tropicalis .IntroductionIn last 30years there has been a signiﬁcant increase in the incidence of fungal infections in humans (Lass-Fl¨o rl,2009).Such infections may either be superﬁcial,affecting the skin,hair,nails and mucosal membranes,or systemic,involving major body organs (Ruping et al .,2008).A number of factors have been implicated in this increased occurrence of fungal disease,but it is generally accepted that the increased and widespread use of certain medical practices,such as immunosuppressive therapies,invasive surgical procedures and use of broad-spectrum antibiotics are signiﬁcant (Sa-maranayake et al .,2002;Hagerty et al .,2003;Kojic &Darouiche,2004).Of the fungi regarded as human pathogens,the members of the genus Candida are the most frequently recovered from human fungal infection.The Candida genus contains over 150heterogeneous species (Calderone,2002),but only aminority have been implicated in human candidosis.Addi-tionally,it is known that approximately 65%of Candida species are unable to grow at a temperature of 371C,which precludes these species from being successful pathogens or indeed commensals of humans (Calderone,2002).Of the Candida species isolated from humans,Candida albicans is the most prevalent under both healthy and disease (Calderone,2002;Samaranayake et al .,2002)condi-tions.However,while mycological studies have shown that C.albicans represents over 80%of isolates from all forms of human candidosis (Calderone,2002)in the last two decades,the number of infections due to non-C.albicans Candida (NCAC)species has increased signiﬁcantly (Kauffman et al .,2000;Manzano-Gayosso et al .,2008;Ruan &Hsueh,2009).The apparent increased involvement of NCAC species in human candidosis may partly be related to improvements in diagnostic methods,such as the use of chromogenic media with the ability to differentiate Candida species,as well asFinal version published online 6June 2011.M I C R O B I O L O G Y R E V I E W Sthe introduction of molecular techniques in the routine diagnosis of fungemia(Liguori et al.,2009).However,the high prevalence of NCAC species in disease could also be a reﬂection of their inherently higher level of resistance to certain antifungal drugs(Gonzalez et al.,2008)compared with C.albicans,as this would promote their persistence, possibly to the detriment of C.albicans,in mixed species infections treated with traditional antifungal agents. Unfortunately,compared with C.albicans there are relatively few studies examining the virulence factors of NCAC species.This review therefore provides information on the current state of knowledge on the biology,identiﬁca-tion,epidemiology,pathogenicity and antifungal resistance of Candida glabrata,Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis,three of the most frequent causes of candidosis after C.albicans.Biology of NCAC speciesCandida comprises an extremely heterogeneous group of fungal organisms that can all grow as yeast morphology. Macroscopically,colonies of Candida,on the routinely used Sabouraud dextrose agar(SDA),are cream to yellow in colour.Depending on the species,colony texture may be smooth,glistening or dry,or wrinkled and dull.Under standard conditions with optimal nutrients,yeast grow in log phase as budding cells(blastoconidia),which are sphe-rical to oval in shape and are approximately2–5Â3–7m m in size(Fig.1)(Larone,2002).Moreover,certain species,such as C.albicans and Candida dubliniensis,can produce a ﬁlamentous type of growth,such as true hyphae(Fig.1)or more frequently,pseudohyphae(Fig.1).The distinction between hyphae and pseudohyphae is related to the way in which they are formed.Pseudohyphae are formed from yeast cells or hyphae by budding(Fig.1), but the new growth remains attached to the parent cell and elongates,resulting inﬁlaments with constrictions at the cell–cell junctions.There are no internal cross walls(septa) associated with pseudohyphae(Fig.1).In comparison,true hyphae are formed from yeast cells or even as branches of existing hyphae.The development of true hyphae is initiated by a‘germ tube’projection(Fig.1),which elongates and then branches with deﬁned septa that divide the hyphae into separate fungal units(Fig.1).Candida albicans and C.dubliniensis are truly poly-morphic,due to their ability to form hyphae and/or pseudohyphae,and these species are also referred to germ tube positive,a diagnostic feature(Table1)(Calderone, 2002).In contrast,C.glabrata is not polymorphic,growing only as blastoconidia(yeast)(Table1;Fig.2).Historically, this species was originally classiﬁed in the genus Torulopsis due to its lack of pseudohyphal formation.However,in 1978,it was determined that the ability to form pseudohy-phae was not a reliable distinguishing factor for members of the genus Candida and it was proposed that Torulopsis glabrata could be classiﬁed in the genus Candida,due to its association with human infection(Fidel et al.,1999).With regard to C.parapsilosis,this species does not produce true hyphae,but can generate pseudohyphae that are character-istically large and curved,and often referred to as‘giantcells’Fig.1.Epiﬂuorescence photocomposition of the different morphological growth forms of Candida albicans stained with calcoﬂuor white:(A) blastoconidia;(B1)reproduction by budding;(B2)germ tube formation;(C1)pseudohyphae formation;(C2)yeast form;(C3)hyphae formation.ÃInternal cross walls(septa).Non-Candida albicans Candida species pathogenicity289(Fig.2)(Larone,2002;Trofa et al .,2008).In contrast,on corn meal Tween 80agar and at 251C after 72h,C.tropicalis produces oval blastospores,pseudohyphae depending on some reports,true hyphae (Fig.2)(Calderone,2002;Larone,2002;Yoshio &Kouji,2006).It should also be highlighted that C.glabrata cells (1–4m m)are noticeably smaller than the blastoconidia of C.albicans (4–6m m),C.tropicalis (4–8m m)and C.para-psilosis (2.5–4m m)(Larone,2002)(Table 1).On SDA (Fig.2)C.glabrata forms glistening,smooth,and cream-co-loured colonies,which are largely indistinguishable from those of other Candida species except for their relative size,which can be quite small (Fig.2).Furthermore,C.para-psilosis ,when grown on SDA,yields white,creamy,shiny and smooth/wrinkled colonies (Fig.2).On the same medium,C.tropicalis forms colonies that are cream-coloured with a slightly mycelial border (Fig.2)(Calderone,2002).Concerning the biochemistry of Candida species, C.glabrata ferments and assimilates only glucose and trehalose,which contrasts with C.albicans ,which ferments and/or assimilates a number of sugars with the notable exception of sucrose (Odds,1988).Additionally,C.tropicalis has the ability to ferment and assimilate sucrose and maltose(Martin,1979).Interestingly, C.parapsilosis was ﬁrstly classiﬁed as a species of Monilia ,due to its inability to ferment maltose (Odds,1988;Trofa et al .,2008).A main distinguishing genetic characteristic of C.glabrata is that it has a haploid genome,in contrast to the diploid genome of C.albicans and several other NCAC species (Fidel et al .,1999).Genetically, C.tropicalis has the highest similarity to C.albicans ,and C.glabrata the least (Butler et al .,2009).It is through the advent of molecular genetics that new identiﬁcation methods for Candida have been developed,leading to the identiﬁcation of new species together with their increased recognition in human infec-tion.Before 2005,C.parapsilosis was separated into three groups (I–III),but further studies revealing genomic differ-ences that have led to the separation of these groups into closely related,but distinct species,namely,C.parapsilosis ,Candida orthopsilosis and Candida metapsilosi s (Tavantiet al .,2005;G ´acser et al .,2007a,b).Laboratory identification of NCAC speciesThe laboratory diagnosis of candidoses continues to beproblematic.Microbiological conﬁrmation can bedifﬁcultFig.2.Candida species macroscopic colonies on cornmeal Tween 80and microscopy structure on SDA.Microscopic structures:(a)Candida glabrata ;(b)Candida parapsilosis ;(c)Candida tropicalis ;macroscopic colonies:(d)C.glabrata ;(e)C.parapsilosis ;(f)C.tropicalis .Table 1.Morphological characteristics of Candida albicans ,Candida tropicalis ,Candida parapsilosis and Candida glabrata species Species Germ tube production Hyphae/pseudohyphae Yeasts size (m m)CHROM-agar colony colour C.albicans 11/14–6Â6–10Blue-green C.tropicalis ÀÆ/14–8Â5–11Dark blue C.parapsilosis ÀÀ/1 2.5–4Â2.5–9WhiteC.glabrataÀÀ/À1–4White,Pink-purple290S.Silva et al.as blood cultures can be negative in up to50%of autopsy-proven cases of deep-seated candidoses,or may only become positive late in the infection(Ellepola&Morrison,2005). Positive cultures from urine or mucosal surfaces do not necessarily indicate invasive disease although may occur during systemic infection(Ellepola&Morrison,2005). Furthermore,differences in virulence between Candida species as well as in their susceptibility to antifungal drugs make identiﬁcation important for clinical management. Laboratory diagnosis has improved with the advent of new methods for Candida isolation and identiﬁcation. Technologies such as species-speciﬁc FISH(Alexander et al.,2006),antibody and antigen detection(Pfaller,1992; Ellepola&Morrison,2005)and molecular approaches for typing and detection of fungal pathogens(Ellepola& Morrison,2005)have all been used successfully.However, many of these approaches have not yet been standardized or validated in large clinical trials and therefore are not widely used in clinical laboratory settings(Ellepola&Morrison, 2005).Laboratory surveillance of‘at-risk’patients could result in earlier initiation of antifungal therapy if sensitive and speciﬁc diagnostic tests,which are also cost effective, become widely available.The clinical symptoms of fungemia are not indicative of particular Candida species and may be induced by other microorganisms.The laboratory identiﬁcation of Candida is therefore essential for establishing a deﬁnitive diagnosis.A standard approach to the laboratory diagnosis generally involves nonmolecular methods,although PCR is increas-ingly being used.Non-PCR based methods of Candida identificationCHROMagar s Candida(CHROMagar s,Paris,France),is a relatively new differential agar medium for Candida species identiﬁcation and has been particularly useful in the pre-sumptive identiﬁcation of C.albicans, C.tropicalis and Candida krusei upon primary culture of clinical specimens. On CHROMagar s Candida,C.glabrata colonies appear white,pink or purple in contrast to C.albicans colonies, which are blue-green,while C.parapsilosis colonies are white and C.tropicalis dark blue(Table1).Moreover,it is possible to detect coinfection with different Candida species on primary culture plates and this can have importance in infection management strategies(Ellepola&Morrison, 2005;Furlaneto-Maia et al.,2007).After Candida isolation,species can also be identiﬁed by carbohydrate assimilation and fermentation tests as well as morphological characteristics such as germ tube and chla-mydospore development(Fig.2).In addition,more rapid and less laborious phenotypic identiﬁcation methods have become available.Perhaps the most widely used methods for Candida species identiﬁcation are those based on the format of carbohydrate assimilation and/or enzyme detection with-in plastic wells of commercially available kits.Examples of such biochemical tests include the API20C AUX(API Candida)Auxacolor(Bio-Rad)and the Uni-Yeast-Tek kit (Ellepola&Morrison,2005).These tests generate reliable identiﬁcation for the most common species of Candida, while identiﬁcation of other Candida species may not be so accurate.For example,the differentiation of C.dubliniensis from C.albicans often requires the use of supplemental biochemical or morphological tests for deﬁnitive identiﬁca-tion(Verweij et al.,1999;Ellepola&Morrison,2005). Additional methods for Candida species identiﬁcation include tests that allow the detection of an isolate in1day, such as the RapID Yeast Plus System(Innovative Diagnostic Systems,Norcross),the Fongiscreen test(SanoﬁDiagnostics Pasteur,France)and the automated Rapid Yeast Identiﬁca-tion Panel(Dade Microscan).However,as mentioned above,most of these tests tend to be most accurate for the identiﬁcation of the more frequently encountered yeast pathogens(Ellepola&Morrison,2005).The diagnosis of invasive candidosis should include a collection of adequate volumes of blood and an agar-based blood culture method for optimal detection of candidemia (Pfaller,1992).Several advances in blood culturing techni-ques have been developed,which appear to have improved the sensitivity and/or reduced the time required to obtain a positive blood culture.Two automated methods for mon-itoring of blood culture bottles,based on colour(BacT/ ALERT3D,Organon Teknika Corp.,Durham,NC)and ﬂuorescence(BACTEC9240,Becton Dickinson),have been developed recently(Ellepola&Morrison,2005).The identiﬁcation of typical blastospores and pseudohy-phae of Candida species on microscopic examination of tissue remains the unequivocal standard for the diagnosis of invasive or disseminated candidoses.Unfortunately,the usefulness of this approach is frequently limited by sampling problems(isolation source and sample size)(Pfaller,1992). The use ofﬂuorescent antibody,acridine orange or calco-ﬂuor-white staining(Pfaller,1992;Ellepola&Morrison, 2005)may enhance the sensitivity of microscopic examina-tion.However,the production ofﬂuorescent antibodies speciﬁc for the identiﬁcation of individual Candida species has proved to be extremely difﬁcult.A relatively recent laboratory method based on PNA FISH targeting the26S rRNA gene allows the reliable detection of C. albicans from NCAC species,within2.5h of yeast growth detection in blood culture,with a sensitivity of99%and speciﬁcity of100%(Rigby et al.,2002).According to recent studies PNA FISH also results in substantial cost savings for hospitals,making the method both an effective and affordable one for the laboratory diagnosis of candidoses(Rigby et al., 2002;Ellepola&Morrison,2005;Alexander et al.,2006).Non-Candida albicans Candida species pathogenicity291PCR-based methods of Candida identification The molecular-based technology that has undoubtedly had the greatest impact in the clinical diagnosis of Candida infections is PCR.This technique can detect highly limited quantities of microbial nucleic acid from blood,tissue specimens as well as cultured microorganisms.Over the last decade,numerous studies have been performed to investi-gate the effectiveness of PCR in diagnosis of systemic infection caused by Candida(Williams et al.,1995,2001; Chen et al.,2000;Carvalho et al.,2007;Orazio et al.,2009). In PCR,a pair of synthetic oligonucleotides homologous to speciﬁc sequences serves to prime the ampliﬁcation of target DNA.The most important feature of any PCR primers used directly on clinical samples is that they are speciﬁc and do not amplify host DNA or that of other microorganisms.To improve the sensitivity of PCR,many investigators have designed primers that amplify regions of DNA that are repeated in the fungal genome.The most commonly used target for yeast diagnostic PCR primers is the rRNA gene operon,encoding the18S, 5.8S,and28S rRNA gene subunits,namely internal transcribed spacer1(ITS1),ITS2 and ITS4(Fell et al.,1992;Sullivan et al.,1995;Williams et al.,1995,2001;Haynes&Westerneng,1996;Chen et al., 2000).More recently,multiplex targets,coupled to real-time PCR,have been used successfully(Sampaio et al.,2005; Carvalho et al.,2007;Orazio et al.,2009)for Candida species identiﬁcation.Despite the increased development of new molecular approaches,the great majority of clinical diagnosis of candidosis are based on nonmolecular methodologies due the reduced amount of PCR equipment in hospital labora-tories,the problems with sample preparation and environ-mental contamination and the lack of standardized protocols for PCR methodologies.Epidemiology and risk factors in NCAC species infectionThe mortality rates associated with different microorgan-isms have declined with the early administration of empiri-cal antibiotics and antifungal agents.However,despite this, systemic fungal infections are increasingly recognized as important causes of morbidity and mortality.Candida species are among the most frequently recovered fungi from blood cultures of hospitalized patients(Pfaller et al.,1998, 2010).In fact,an increasing incidence of fungal infections with Candida species has been noted in immunocompro-mised patients,including those in intensive care,postsurgi-cal units and suffering from cancer(Kiehn et al.,1980; Samaranayake et al.,2002;Hagerty et al.,2003).Candida species are most frequently isolated from the oral cavity,and vulvovaginal and urinary tracts and are detected in approxi-mately31–55%of healthy individuals.Historically, C. albicans has accounted for70–80%of clinical isolates,with other NCAC species only rarely encountered(Odds,1988; Calderone,2002;Samaranayake et al.,2002).Nevertheless, over the last10–30years NCAC species have emerged as important opportunistic pathogens of humans and the reasons for this might be related to improved diagnostic methods or altered medical practices,as mentioned above. Regardless of the basis of this change,recent epidemiological data reveal a mycological shift,and while C.albicans remains the most common causative agent,its relative incidence in infection is declining with the increasing prevalence of other species such as C.glabrata,C.tropicalis and C.parapsilosis (Chandra et al.,2001;Colombo et al.,2003;Bassetti et al., 2006).In a study on the epidemiology of invasive candidosis, Pfaller&Diekema(2007)observed that C.albicans,C. glabrata,C.tropicalis and C.parapsilosis collectively ac-counted for about95%of identiﬁable Candida infections. Moreover,in the1980s,according to Kiehn et al.(1980),C. albicans constituted68%of Candida isolates from sites other than blood in cancer patients,while C.tropicalis,C. parapsilosis and C.glabrata accounted only for12%,10% and 3.0%of the isolates,respectively.Table2presents epidemiologic studies published between2000and2010, concerning oral candidosis,candiduria and candidemia.In more recent studies,most cases of fungemia have been signiﬁcantly associated with NCAC species(Bassetti et al., 2006;Colombo et al.,2007;Chakrabarti et al.,2009;Pfaller et al.,2010).However,it is important to emphasize that there are signiﬁcant variations in Candida species isolation depending on the geographical region and patient group, with some NCAC species being more prevalent,even compared with C.albicans,in certain countries(Colombo et al.,2007).The incidence of C.glabrata is higher in adults than in children,and lower in neonates(Krcmery&Barnes,2002). In contrast, C.parapsilosis appears to be a signiﬁcant problem in neonates,transplant recipients and patients receiving parenteral nutrition(Trofa et al.,2008).Further-more,C.tropicalis is commonly associated with patients with neutropenia and malignancy(Colombo et al.,2007). For many years C.glabrata was considered a relatively nonpathogenic saprophyte of the normalﬂora of healthy individuals and certainly not readily associated with serious infection in humans.However,following the widespread and the increased use of immunosuppressive therapies together with broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment,the frequency of mucosal and systemic infections caused by C.glabrata has increased signiﬁcantly(Hajjeh et al.,2004). Although the mortality rate associated with Candida infec-tions varies with the type of patient and with the causative agent,the incidence rates of candidosis infections attributed292S.Silva et al.to NCAC species were14%for C.glabrata and C.parapsilosis and7%for C.tropicalis according to a European Confedera-tion of Medical Mycology survey(Tortorano et al.,2006). Recently,Chen et al.(2008)reported that C.glabrata was a causative agent of candiduria in Australia.This is extremely important,because,compared with other NCAC species infection,the mortality rate associated with C.glabrata is the highest(Abi-Said et al.,1997;Krcmery,1999b).Until recently,few studies had evaluated independent risk factors associated with nosocomial C.glabrata acquisition and subsequent disease.Although C.glabrata is known to be present in patient’sﬂora,relatively little is known about the hospital reservoirs of C.glabrata,with likely sources of infection involving a complex interaction of both environ-mental and human reservoirs.Two studies(Isenberg et al., 1989;Vazquez et al.,1993)have indicated hand carriage on hospital personnel as possible sources of infection.Thus, similar to other nosocomial pathogens,C.glabrata may also be acquired,directly or indirectly,from contaminated environmental surfaces.However,the role of carriage by personnel in dissemination of C.glabrata remains to be clariﬁtely,the most frequent combination of mixed species infection by Candida species is C.glabrata and C.albicans,which has been found in approximately70%of the patients with oral candidosis(Redding et al.,2002).Candida parapsilosis,despite being initially considered a nonpathogenic species,was initially identiﬁed as the causa-tive agent of a fatal case of endocarditis in an intravenous drug user in1940(Joachim&Polayes,1940).Furthermore, over the past decade,the incidence of C.parapsilosis in infections has increased drastically.In fact,reports indicate that C.parapsilosis is often the second most frequently isolated Candida species from blood cultures(Almirante et al.,2006;Colombo et al.,2007;Costa-de-Oliveira et al., 2008).Furthermore,C.parapsilosis is one of the fungi most frequently isolated from human hands(Bonassoli et al., 2005)and the second most commonly isolated Candida species from normally sterile body sites of hospitalized patients.This species accounts for15.5%of Candida isolates in North America,16.3%in Europe,and23.4%in Latin America,outranked only by C.albicans(51.5%,47.8%and 36.5%,respectively)and C.glabrata(21.3%)in North America(Messer et al.,2006).However, C.parapsilosis fungemia has a lower mortality rate(4%)compared with that caused by C.albicans and C.glabrata(Kossoff et al., 1998).The increased incidence of C.parapsilosis infections has been attributed to a variety of risk factors,similar to other Candida species,including the organism’s selective growth capabilities in hyperalimentation solutions and its highTable2.Selected epidemiological studies published from2000to2010,concerning the distribution of Candida species isolates among various types of candidosisCandidosis References Period ofobservationRegion/countryNumberof strainsC.albicans(%)C.tropicalis(%)C.parapsilosis(%)C.glabrata(%)Oral candidosis Gonzalez Gravina et al.(2007)February–May2003Venezuela4342.312.814.9 2.1Martins et al.(2010a,b)May2005–2006Portugal5379 4.8 6.5 4.8Luque et al.(2009)-Argentine-60.7 4.5- 5.6 Candiduria Kauffman et al.(2000)-USA53051.87.9 4.115.6 Kobayashi et al.(2004)-Brazil4535.522.311.18.8Passos et al.(2005)-Brazil4370 4.6 4.67Binelli et al.(2006)1999–2001Brazil235243.5-17.3Chen et al.(2008)June–August2006Australia6585.2- 4.427.8A´lvarez-Lerma et al.(2003)1998–1999Spain38968.4360.58.2Dorko et al.(2002)-Slovakia9461.7 6.324.5-Candidemia Hazen et al.(1986)-USA1262138123 Chakrabarti et al.(2009)-India-26.3-10.5Colombo et al.(2007)-Brazil2823848239Costa-de-Oliveira et al.(2008)During2004Portugal-35-26.5-Bassetti et al.(2006)1999–2003Italy1824092315Miranda et al.(2009)2004–2005Brazil-4233162Tortorano et al.(2006)1997–1999Europe4735371414Trick et al.(2002)During1999USA-59101112Pfaller et al.(2010)2008–2009Europe/Asia/American1239509.817.417.4-,Not mentioned.Non-Candida albicans Candida species pathogenicity293ability to colonize intravascular devices and prosthetic materials.Additionally,patients requiring prolonged used of a central venous catheter or indwelling devices,such as cancer patients,are at increased risk of infection with C.parapsilosis.A recent Spanish study of72patients with invasive C.parapsilosis identiﬁed vascular catheterization (97%),prior antibiotic therapy(91%),parenteral nutrition (54%),prior surgery(46%),prior immunosuppressive therapy(38%),malignancy(27%),transplant receipt (16%),neutropenia(12%)and prior colonization(11%), as risk factors for infection(Almirante et al.,2006).In a report of64episodes(between2002and2003)of C.parapsilosis candidemia in Brazilian hospitals,the pri-mary risk factors were neutropenia,the use of central venous catheters and cancer chemotherapy(Brito et al.,2006).The population at greatest risk for nosocomial infection with C.parapsilosis is that of extremely low-birth-weight neonates (Solomon et al.,1984;V oss et al.,1994).In fact,colonization of the skin or gastrointestinal tract is frequently theﬁrst step in the pathogenesis of invasive candidosis,and neonates are especially prone to such infections given their compromised skin integrity,susceptibility to gastrointestinal tract infection, long-term need for central venous or umbilical catheters and prolonged endotracheal intubation(Benjamin et al.,2000). Furthermore,C.parapsilosis has been isolated from approxi-mately one-third of neonates with gastrointestinal coloniza-tion by Candida species(Saiman et al.,2001)and from oropharynges of23%of healthy neonates(Contreras et al., 1994).Furthermore,in contrast to other NCAC species,the rates of mortality in low-birth-weight neonates caused by C.parapsilosis are drastically higher and sometimes equivalent to those associated with C.albicans(Trofa et al.,2008). Candida tropicalis is one of the three most commonly isolated NCAC species(A´lvarez-Lerma et al.,2003;Binelli et al.,2006;Colombo et al.,2007;Hasan et al.,2009). Usually,C.tropicalis is considered the third most frequently isolated NCAC species from blood and urine cultures(Table 2)(Kauffman et al.,2000;A´lvarez-Lerma et al.,2003). Moreover,in a recent epidemiology study conducted in12 Brazilian medical centres,C.tropicalis was the second most frequently recovered Candida species,accounting for 33–48%of all candidemia cases(Colombo et al.,2007; Miranda et al.,2009).Additionally,C.tropicalis is often found in patients admitted to intensive care units,especially in patients requiring prolonged catheterization,receiving broad-spectrum antibiotics or with cancer(Kauffman et al., 2000;Rho et al.,2004;Colombo et al.,2007;Nucci& Colombo,2007).Furthermore,C.tropicalis appears to dis-play a higher potential for dissemination in neutropenic individuals compared with C.albicans and other NCAC species(Colombo et al.,2007).According to Kontoyiannis et al.(2001),there are distinct differences in the presentation and risk factors of C.tropica-lis and C.albicans fungemia,with the former more persis-tent and leading to longer intensive care unit stays during the course of infection.This may imply a higher virulence and greater resistance to commonly used antifungals by C.tropicalis when compared with C.albicans.In fact,some epidemiologic studies(Krcmery,1999a;Kontoyiannis et al., 2001;Eggimann et al.,2003;Colombo et al.,2007) documented that C.tropicalis was associated with higher mortality than other NCAC species and C.albicans. This propensity of C.tropicalis for dissemination and the associated high mortality may be related to the virulence factors exhibited by this species such as bioﬁlm formation, proteinases secretion and dimorphism(Krcmery,1999b; Negri et al.,2010a).Pathogenicity and virulence factors of NCAC speciesThere remains a debate over what actually constitutes a virulence factor.It can be argued that all the traits required for establishing disease are virulence factors;however, strictly speaking,virulence factors are those that interact directly with host cells causing damage(Haynes,2001).The pathogenicity of Candida species is mediated by a number of virulence factors,including adherence and bioﬁlm forma-tion on host tissue as well as medical devices,the ability to evade host defences and the production of tissue-damaging hydrolytic enzymes(e.g.proteases,phospholipases and haemolysins).Infection models of candidosis in animals suggest that C.albicans is the most pathogenic species(Samaranayake& Samaranayake,2001),and in vitro investigations indicate that it also expresses higher levels of putative virulence factors compared with other species(Jayatilake et al., 2006).Furthermore,it is important to emphasize that these yeasts are not usual pathogens of these animals and therefore such studies do not necessarily reﬂect the reality of patho-genicity of Candida species.Moreover,Candida species can colonize and cause disease at several anatomically distinct sites including the skin,oral cavity,gastrointestinal tract, vagina and vascular system.In order to establish infection, opportunistic pathogens have to evade the immune system, survive,reproduce in the host environment,and in the case of systemic infection,disseminate to new tissues and organs. Adhesion and biofilm formationThe primary event in Candida infection is adherence to host surfaces,which is required for initial colonization.Adher-ence contributes to persistence of the organism within the host,and is considered essential in the establishment of disease.Furthermore,Candida species can also adhere to the surfaces of medical devices and form bioﬁlms.Several factors have been implicated in inﬂuencing adhesion,294S.Silva et al.。

生物学专业英语词汇(最新整理)

Botany植物学Cell theory细胞学说cell membrane细胞膜nucleus 细胞核Organelle 细胞器cell wall细胞壁cytoplasm细胞质protoplast原生质体cell cycle细胞周期mitochondrion 线粒体photosynthesis光合作用unit membrane 单位膜chloroplast 叶绿体chlorophyll叶绿素xanthophyll叶黄素carotene胡萝卜素golgiosome高尔基体ribosome 核糖体lysosome溶酶体microfilament微丝nuclear fission核分裂reproduction繁殖primary wall初生壁secondary wall次生壁plasmodesma胞间连丝mitosis有丝分裂amitosis无丝分裂meiosis减数分裂cytokinesis胞质分裂interphase间期prophase前期metaphase中期anaphase后期telophase末期tissue组织pistil 雌蕊stamen雄蕊ovary子房pollination传粉pollen tube花粉管porogamy珠孔受精chalazogamy合点受精mesogamy中部受精apomixis无融合生殖apogamy无配子生殖patrogenesis孤雄生殖parthenogensis 孤雌生殖apospory无孢子生殖pericarp果皮life history生活史root system根系main root主根lateral root侧根taproot system直根系fibrous root system须根系cortex皮层vascular cylinder 维管柱pericycle中柱鞘xylem ray 木射线vascular ray 维管射线phloem ray韧皮射线root cap根冠Casparian strip凯氏带primary xylem初生木质部primary phloem初生韧皮部vascular ray 维管射线xylem ray 木射线phelloderm栓内层phloem ray韧皮射线embryo胚homologous organ同源器官analogous organ同功器官endosperm胚乳seed coat种皮radicle胚根plumule胚芽hypocotyl下胚轴cotyledon子叶dormancy休眠seed germination种子萌发eukaryote真核生物prokaryote原核生物algae藻类blue-green algae蓝藻trichogyne受精丝mucopolysaccharide黏多糖gelatinous sheath 胶质鞘exospore外生孢子heterosexual cell异性细胞green algae绿藻isogamy同配生殖anisogamy 异配生殖anisogamy 卵式生殖zygogamy 接合生殖haploid单倍体diploid二倍体polyploid多倍体carposporophyte孢子体brown algae褐藻sea-tangle海带agar琼脂fungi菌类parasitism寄生saprophytic腐生的lichen地衣archegonium颈卵器antheridium精子器antiphyte孢子体gametophyte配子体protonema原丝体bryophyta 苔藓植物cruciferae十字花科vascular plants微管植物aquatic plant水生植物salicaceae杨柳科angiosperm被子植物endoplasmic reticulum内质网vegetative reproduction营养繁殖intercellular layer胞间层phellogen& cork cambium木栓形成层asexual reproduction无性繁殖sexual propagation有性繁殖tetradynamous stamen四强雄蕊didynamous stamen二强雄蕊monodelphous stamen单体雄蕊diadelphous stamen二体雄蕊triadelphous stamen三体雄蕊polyadelphous stamens多体雄蕊synantherous stamen聚药雄蕊primary wall cells初生壁细胞vegetative cell营养细胞male sterility雄性不育filiform apparatus丝状器meristem zone 分生区elongation zone伸长区maturation zone成熟区embryophyte有胚植物specific parasitism专性寄生specific saprophyte专性腐生facultative parasitism兼性寄生facultative saprophyte兼性腐生sexual generation有性世代asexual generation无性世代Zoology动物学cell细胞prokaryotic cell原核细胞eukaryotic cell真核细胞protein蛋白质nucleic acid核酸carbohydrate糖lipid脂质protoplasm原生质inclusion内含物cell cycle细胞周期pulmonary alveolus肺泡flagellum鞭毛food vacuole食物泡pinocytosis胞饮作用fission裂体生殖microgamete小配子zygote合子microtubule微管contraction silk 收缩丝merogenesis 卵裂blastocoele 囊胚腔complete cleavage完全卵裂layering分层cynapse突触myoneme肌丝myocyte肌细胞mesoglea中胶层monoecism雌雄同体dioecism雌雄异体velum缘膜radial symmetry辐射对称nerve net神经网planula 浮浪幼虫bilateral symmetry两侧对称mesoderm中胚层tubule cell 管细胞osmoregulation渗透调节acetabulum 腹吸盘oral sucker口吸盘metacercaria囊蚴pseudocoel假体腔cuticle角质膜cloacal pore泄殖孔renette腺肾细emunctory排泄管resting egg休眠卵metamere体节metamerism分节现象sense organ 感觉器periostracum壳皮层prismatic layer壳层nacreous layer珍珠层veliger 面盘幼虫glochidium 钩介幼虫adductor闭壳肌segmentation异律分节linear animal线形动物pericardial cavity围心腔cervical vertebra颈椎sacral vertebra荐椎pulmonary vein肺静脉precaval vein 前腔静脉bladder气囊middle ear中耳tympanum cavity中耳腔amnion羊膜neopallium新皮层lagena 瓶状囊wishbone叉骨postcaval vein后腔静脉glandular stomach腺胃air sac气囊salt gland盐腺sclerotic ring 巩膜骨viviparity胎生placenta胎盘allantois尿囊rumen瘤胃bursa of fabricius 腔上囊masticatory stomach肌胃reticulum网胃omasum瓣胃abomasum皱胃cochlea耳蜗earthworm蚯蚓internal naris内鼻孔amniota羊膜动物arthropod节肢动物coelenterate腔肠动物annelid环节动物cell membrane&plasma membrane细胞膜epithelial tissue上皮组织connective tissue结缔组织cartilage tissue软骨组织osseous tissue骨组织muscular tissue肌肉组织cardiac muscle心肌intercalated disc闰盘Nissl's body尼氏小体colony &group群体meroblastic cleavage不完全卵裂colonial theory 群体说gastrovascular cavity消化循环腔muscle system肌肉体系excretory system排泄系统reproductive system生殖系统digestive system消化系统archinephric duct原肾管basal lamina & basal membrane基膜cross-fertilization异体受精self-fertilization自体受精final host终寄主first intermidate host第一中间寄主semicircular canal半规管second intermediate host第二中间寄主Genetics遗传学heredity 遗传variation 变异gene 基因pisum sativum 豌豆segregation 分离gamete 生殖细胞zygote 合子allele 等位基因genotype 基因型phenotype 表现型test cross 测交oryza sativa 水稻diploid 二倍体haploid 单倍体centromere 着丝粒satellite 随体linker 连丝mitosis 有丝分裂mesoblast中胚层spindle 纺锤体interphase 间期spindle fiber 纺锤丝vicia faba蚕豆nucleoplasm 核质spermatogenous 精原细胞oogonium 卵原细胞spermatid 精细胞Phenocopy 拟表型epistasis上位效应mutant突变型gametic lethal配子致死zygotic lethal合子致死autosome 常染色体dominant lethal显性致死carrier 携带者homozygote 纯合体heterozygote 杂合体genotype 基因型phenotype 表现型linkage group 连锁群interference 干涉coincidence 并发率genetic map 遗传学图wild type野生型mutation 突变heterokaryon 异核体auxotroph 营养缺陷型strain 菌株recipient 受体donor 供体fragment 片段induction 诱导prophage 原噬菌体transduction 转导Mendel’s laws 孟德尔定律law of segregation 分离定律first filial generation 子一代parental generation 亲代dominant character 显性性状recessive character 隐性性状hereditary determinant 遗传因子parental combination 亲组合recombination 重组合punnett square 棋盘法Mendelian character 孟德尔性状primary constriction 初级缢痕secondary constriction 次级缢痕nucleolar organizer 核仁形成区first polar body 第一极体second polar body 第二极体sister chromatids 姐妹染色单体female gametic nucleus 卵核multiple alleles 复等位基因sex-chromosome性染色体sex-linked inheritance 伴性遗传primary constriction 初级缢痕secondary constriction 次级缢痕complementary gene互补基因homologous chromosome 同源染色体sister chromatids 姐妹染色单体secondary oocyte 次级卵母细胞three-point testcross 三点测交primary spermatocyte 初级精母细胞secondary spermatocyte 次级精母细胞first division segregation 第一次分裂分离second division segregation 第二次分裂分离law of independent assortment 自由组合定律Biochemistry 生物化学essential element必需元素trace elements微量元素proteoglycan蛋白聚糖amino acid氨基酸primary structure 一级结构random coil无规卷曲structural domain 结构域subunit亚基degeneration变性adenine腺嘌呤guanine鸟嘌呤cytosine胞嘧啶thymine胸腺嘧啶uracil尿嘧啶nucleoside 核苷nucleotide核苷酸base pairing碱基配对base pair碱基对数base碱基数gyrase旋转酶nucleosome核小体complementary DNA互补DNA plasmid质粒transposons转座子repetitive sequence重复序列exon外显子intron内含子variable loop可变环ribonuclease核糖核酸酶renaturation复性hyperchromic effect增色效应base stacking force碱基堆积力annealing退火melting-out temperature熔解温度hypochromic effect减色效应maltose麦芽糖sucrose蔗糖lactose乳糖starch淀粉glycogen糖原cellulose纤维素cellulase纤维素酶selectivity选择性substrate底物holoenzyme全酶cofactor辅因子coenzyme辅酶oxidase氧化酶metabolism新陈代谢assimilation同化作用catabolism异化作用metabolite代谢产物biological oxidation 生物氧化cytochrome细胞色素rotenone鱼藤酮amytal阿密妥antimycin A抗霉素A cyanide氰化物glycolysis糖酵解ethanol乙醇citrate柠檬酸cis-aconitate 顺乌头酸succinic acid琥珀酸oxaloacetic acid草酰乙酸acetyl-coenzyme乙酰辅酶fumarate延胡索酸glyoxylate cycle 乙醛酸循环malate苹果酸fatty acid 脂肪酸carbon unit一碳单位replicon复制子core enzyme 核心酶primosome引发体Okazaki fragment冈崎片段leading chain 前导链lagging strand后随链terminator终止子telomere端粒telomerase端粒酶replication fork复制叉vector载体promoter启动子terminator终止子operon操纵子codon密码子degeneracy简并性hormone激素citric acid cycle 柠檬酸循环deamination脱氨基作用urea cycle尿素循环euchromatin常染色质messenger RNA信使RNAtransfer RNA转移RNA ribosome RNA核糖体RNA metabolic regulation代谢调节feedback regulation反馈调节structural gene结构基因promoter gene启动基因operator gene操纵基因regulator gene调节基因termination factor终止因子triplet code三联体密码initiator codon起始密码termination codon终止密码semiconservative replication半保留复制ornithine cycle鸟氨酸循环ketogenic amino acid生酮氨基酸glucogenic amino acid生糖氨基酸oxidative deamination氧化脱氨作用transamination转氨基作用reverse transcription逆转录decarboxylation脱羧作用semidiscontinuous replication半不连续复制reverse transcriptase 逆转录酶missense mutation错义突变synonymous mutation同义突变neutral mutation中性突变nonsense mutation无义突变phosphatidic acid 磷脂酸essential amino acids 必需氨基酸dihydrouracil loop二氢尿嘧啶环anticodon loop反密码子环double-strand circular DNA 双链环形DNA superhelical DNA 超螺旋DNA open circular DNA 开环DNA linear DNA 线形DNAbase stacking force 碱基堆积力secondary structure二级结构super-secondary structure超二级结构tertiary structure三级结构quaternary structure四级结构negative supercoil DNA负超螺旋DNApositive supercoil DNA正超螺旋DNAGlyceraldehyde-3-phosphate甘油醛-3-二磷酸glucogenic and ketogenic amino acid生糖兼生酮氨基酸restriction endonuclease限制性内切酶polymerase chain reaction聚合酶链反应Microbiology微生物学living creatures 生物culture medium 培养基lawn菌苔culture plate 培养平板bacteria 细菌archaea 古生菌eukaryote真核生物prokaryote 原核生物protozoan 原生动物hypha 菌丝mycoplasma 支原体yeast 酵母菌plasmolysis 质壁分离Escherichia Coli大肠杆菌murein胞壁质peptidoglycan 肽聚糖mucopeptide黏肽outer membrane外膜chromosome染色体nucleolus 核仁nucleoid 拟核chromatin 染色质centromere 着丝粒telomere 端粒protoplast 原生质体mycoplasma 支原体glycoprotein 糖蛋白mesosome 间体cytoplasm细胞质megnetosome磁小体nucleoid拟核glycocalyx 糖被capsule 荚膜flagellum 鞭毛lysosome 溶酶体chloroplast 叶绿体thylakoid类囊体inorganic salt 无机盐peptone 蛋白胨sulfur bacteria 硫细菌beef extract牛肉膏vitamin 维生素inclusion body 内含物lithotroph 无机营养型medium 培养基agar 琼脂organotroph 有机营养型antiport 逆向运输active transport 主动运输pinocytosis 胞饮作用catabolism 分解代谢passive transport 被动运输uniport 单向运输anabolism 合成代谢fermentation发酵batch culture 分批培养log phase 对数生长期stationary phase 稳定生长期lag phase 迟缓期decline phase衰亡期aerobe 好氧菌antibiotic 抗生素antigenome 反基因组transformation 转化genome 基因组plasmid 质粒transforming factor 转化因子diploid 二倍体haploid 单倍体transposable element 转座因子conjugation接合作用transposon转座子phenotype 表型genotype基因型auxotroph营养缺陷型wild-type野生型transition 转换transversion 颠换spontaneous mutation 自发突变reverse mutation 回复突变sexduction 性导transduction 转导promoter 启动子operon 操纵子recombination repair 重组修复repressor 阻遏蛋白corepressor辅阻遏物clone 克隆denaturation 变性annealing 退火extension 延伸cloning vector 克隆载体replicon 复制子telomere 端粒cohesive end 黏性末端promoter 启动子terminator 终止子gene therapy 基因治疗phylogeny 系统发育ammonification 氨化作用nitrification 硝化作用denitrification 反硝化作用expression vector 表达载体aerobic respiration有氧呼吸anaerobic respiration无氧呼吸origin of replication 复制起始点incompatibility 不亲和性gene mutation 基因突变synonymous mutation 同义突变chromosomal aberration 染色体畸变missense mutation 错义突变frame-shift mutation 移码突变lactose operon 乳糖操纵子negative transcription control 负转录调控tryptophan operon 色氨酸操纵子cytoplasmic inheritance 细胞质遗传genetic engineering 基因工程recombinant DNA technology 重组DNA技术palindromic structure 回文结构spread plate method 涂布平板法pour plate method 倾注培养法streak plate method 平板划线法shake tube method 稀释摇管法continuous culture 连续培养。

分子生物学习题答案

分子生物学习题答案第一章绪论Chapter 1 Introduction一名词解释1．人类基因组计划：与曼哈顿原子弹计划和阿波罗登月计划相媲美的美国人类基因组计划（human genome project, HGP)，解读人基因组上的所有基因、24个染色体DNA分子中的碱基序列。

在―人类基因组计划‖中，分为两个阶段：DNA序列图以前的计划和DNA序列图计划。

序列图前计划包括遗传图、物理图、转录图。

2. RFLP (restrict fragment length polymorphism )：A variation from one individual to the next in the number of cutting sites for a given restriction endonuclease in a given genetic locus.3. DNA指纹：基因组中存在着多种重复序列，拷贝数从几个到数十万个，可分为串联重复序列和分散重复序列。

根据个体重复序列拷贝的位置和数目的差异，使用限制性内切酶，获得具有个体特异性的DNA片段。

可以作为亲缘关系或个人身份的鉴定。

4. SNP（single nucleotide polymorphism, 单核苷酸多态性）：在一个群体中，基因组内某一特定核苷酸位置上出现2种或2种以上不同核苷酸的现象，在群体中相应频率为1-2%。

如果低于这个频率，可视为点突变。

二简答1. What is molecular biology？Molecular biology is the subject of gene structure and function at the molecular level.To explain the principle of development, metabolism, heredity and variation, aging at the molecular level. It grew out of the disciplines of genetics and biochemistry.2. Major events in the genetics century第二章核酸、蛋白质结构一选择题：B, E, D, A, A二名词解释1．Transfection：describes the introduction of foreign material into eukaryotic cells using a virus vector or other means of transfer. The term transfection for non-viral methods is most often used in reference to mammalian cells, while the term transformation is preferred to describe non-viral DNA transfer in bacteria and non-animal eukaryotic cells such as fungi, algae and plants.2．Configuration：The configuration of a molecule is the permanent geometry that results from the spatial arrangement of its bonds. The ability of the same set of atoms to form two or more molecules with different configurations is stereoisomerism.Configuration is distinct from chemical conformation, a shape attainable by bond rotations.3．构象：(Conformation, generally means structural arrangement），指一个分子中不改变共价键结构，仅是单键周围的原子旋转所产生的原子空间排列。

台湾清华大学生命科学第三十六讲(李家维教授)

MITOSIS20 µ源自mNucleus of tube cell (n) Ragweed pollen grain
75 µ m
Development of Female Gametophytes (Embryo Sacs) • Within an ovule, megaspores are produced by meiosis and develop into embryo sacs, the female gametophytes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 38-3b
(b) Development of a female gametophyte (embryo sac)
Megasporangium (2n) Ovule
Video: Bee Pollinating
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Video: Bat Pollinating Agave Plant
Fig. 38-3
(a) Development of a male gametophyte (in pollen grain)
FERTILIZATION
Zygote (2n)
Embryo (2n) (sporophyte) (b) Simplified angiosperm life cycle Simple fruit
Fig. 38-2a
Stamen
Anther Filament

分子生物学英文版Chapter3

CHAPTER 3 Transcription3.1 Outline of Transcription3.2 Transcription in Prokaryotes 3.3 Transcription in Eukaryotes 3.4 RNA Splicing and ProcessingCentral Dogma3.1 Outline of TranscriptionKey Terms•Transcription: a DNA segment that constitutes a gene is read and transcribed into a single stranded sequence of RNA.•The sense strand(coding strand)of DNA has the same sequence as the mRNA and is related by the genetic code to the protein sequence that it represents.•The antisense strand(Template strand)of DNA is complementary to the sense strand, and is the one that acts as the template for synthesis of mRNA.•A promoteris a region of DNA where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription.•Startpoint (startsite) refers to the position on DNAcorresponding to the first base incorporated into RNA. •A terminator is a sequence of DNA that causes RNA polymerase to terminate transcription.Key TermsTranscription unitEnzymatic synthesis of RNADNA templaterN′TP+n rNTP rN′TP-(rNMP)n +nPPiRNA-P, Mg2+RNA合成:前体为4种5′-核苷三磷酸(rNTP) —ATP,GTP,CTP和UTP;模板为DNA双链分子中的一条链;催化合成的酶为RNA polymerase;不需要引物,直接开始新生RNA链的延伸;碱基配对原则:A-U(T), C-G;聚合反应中生成磷酸二酯键,释放出PPi;新生RNA链的延伸方向: 5′→3′3.2 Transcription in Prokaryotes3.2.1 RNA polymerases3.2.2 Promoter recognition3.2.3 Initiation and elongation of transcription 3.2.4 Two types of terminators in E.coli3.2.1 RNA polymeraseRNA聚合酶核心酶：α2ββ′RNA聚合酶全酶：α2ββ′σRNA聚合酶各亚基的功能（见左图）Sigma factor changes the DNA-binding properties of RNApolymerase so that its affinity for general DNA is reduced and its affinity for promoters is increased. E.coli has several sigma factors, each of which causes RNApolymerase to initiate at a set of promoters defined by specific –35 and –10 sequences.The sigma subunit is required only fortranscription initiation3.2.2 Promoter recognitionThe promoter has three components1）-10区, 又称Pribnow Box保守序列为T80A95T45A60A50T96。

(2021年整理)生物学专业英语词汇

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Botany植物学Cell theory细胞学说 cell membrane细胞膜 nucleus 细胞核Organelle 细胞器 cell wall细胞壁 cytoplasm细胞质protoplast原生质体 cell cycle细胞周期 mitochondrion 线粒体photosynthesis光合作用 unit membrane 单位膜 chloroplast 叶绿体chlorophyll叶绿素 xanthophyll叶黄素 carotene胡萝卜素golgiosome高尔基体 ribosome 核糖体 lysosome溶酶体microfilament微丝 nuclear fission核分裂 reproduction繁殖primary wall初生壁 secondary wall次生壁 plasmodesma胞间连丝mitosis有丝分裂 amitosis无丝分裂 meiosis减数分裂cytokinesis胞质分裂 interphase间期 prophase前期metaphase中期 anaphase后期 telophase末期tissue组织 pistil 雌蕊 stamen雄蕊ovary子房 pollination传粉 pollen tube花粉管porogamy珠孔受精 chalazogamy合点受精 mesogamy中部受精apomixis无融合生殖 apogamy无配子生殖 patrogenesis孤雄生殖parthenogensis 孤雌生殖 apospory无孢子生殖 pericarp果皮life history生活史 root system根系 main root主根lateral root侧根 taproot system直根系 fibrous root system须根系cortex皮层 vascular cylinder 维管柱 pericycle中柱鞘xylem ray 木射线 vascular ray 维管射线 phloem ray韧皮射线root cap根冠 Casparian strip凯氏带 primary xylem初生木质部primary phloem初生韧皮部 vascular ray 维管射线 xylem ray 木射线phelloderm栓内层 phloem ray韧皮射线 embryo胚homologous organ同源器官 analogous organ同功器官 endosperm胚乳seed coat种皮 radicle胚根 plumule胚芽hypocotyl下胚轴 cotyledon子叶 dormancy休眠seed germination种子萌发 eukaryote真核生物 prokaryote原核生物algae藻类 blue—green algae蓝藻 trichogyne受精丝mucopolysaccharide黏多糖 gelatinous sheath 胶质鞘 exospore外生孢子heterosexual cell异性细胞 green algae绿藻 isogamy同配生殖anisogamy 异配生殖 anisogamy 卵式生殖 zygogamy 接合生殖haploid单倍体 diploid二倍体 polyploid多倍体carposporophyte孢子体 brown algae褐藻 sea-tangle海带agar琼脂 fungi菌类 parasitism寄生saprophytic腐生的 lichen地衣 archegonium颈卵器antheridium精子器 antiphyte孢子体 gametophyte配子体protonema原丝体 bryophyta 苔藓植物 cruciferae十字花科vascular plants微管植物 aquatic plant水生植物 salicaceae杨柳科angiosperm被子植物 endoplasmic reticulum内质网vegetative reproduction营养繁殖 intercellular layer胞间层phellogen＆ cork cambium木栓形成层 asexual reproduction无性繁殖sexual propagation有性繁殖 tetradynamous stamen四强雄蕊didynamous stamen二强雄蕊 monodelphous stamen单体雄蕊diadelphous stamen二体雄蕊 triadelphous stamen三体雄蕊polyadelphous stamens多体雄蕊 synantherous stamen聚药雄蕊primary wall cells初生壁细胞 vegetative cell营养细胞male sterility雄性不育 filiform apparatus丝状器meristem zone 分生区 elongation zone伸长区maturation zone成熟区 embryophyte有胚植物specific parasitism专性寄生 specific saprophyte专性腐生facultative parasitism兼性寄生 facultative saprophyte兼性腐生sexual generation有性世代 asexual generation无性世代Zoology动物学cell细胞 prokaryotic cell原核细胞 eukaryotic cell真核细胞protein蛋白质 nucleic acid核酸 carbohydrate糖lipid脂质 protoplasm原生质 inclusion内含物cell cycle细胞周期 pulmonary alveolus肺泡 flagellum鞭毛food vacuole食物泡 pinocytosis胞饮作用 fission裂体生殖microgamete小配子 zygote合子 microtubule微管contraction silk 收缩丝 merogenesis 卵裂 blastocoele 囊胚腔complete cleavage完全卵裂 layering分层 cynapse突触myoneme肌丝 myocyte肌细胞 mesoglea中胶层monoecism雌雄同体 dioecism雌雄异体 velum缘膜 radial symmetry辐射对称 nerve net神经网 planula 浮浪幼虫bilateralsymmetry两侧对称 mesoderm中胚层 tubule cell 管细胞osmoregulation渗透调节 acetabulum 腹吸盘 oral sucker口吸盘metacercaria囊蚴 pseudocoel假体腔 cuticle角质膜cloacal pore泄殖孔 renette腺肾细 emunctory排泄管resting egg休眠卵 metamere体节 metamerism分节现象sense organ 感觉器 periostracum壳皮层 prismatic layer壳层nacreous layer珍珠层 veliger 面盘幼虫 glochidium 钩介幼虫adductor闭壳肌 segmentation异律分节 linear animal线形动物pericardial cavity围心腔 cervical vertebra颈椎 sacral vertebra荐椎pulmonary vein肺静脉 precaval vein 前腔静脉 bladder气囊middle ear中耳 tympanum cavity中耳腔 amnion羊膜neopallium新皮层 lagena 瓶状囊 wishbone叉骨postcaval vein后腔静脉 glandular stomach腺胃 air sac气囊salt gland盐腺 sclerotic ring 巩膜骨 viviparity胎生placenta胎盘 allantois尿囊 rumen瘤胃bursa of fabricius 腔上囊 masticatory stomach肌胃 reticulum网胃omasum瓣胃 abomasum皱胃 cochlea耳蜗earthworm蚯蚓 internal naris内鼻孔 amniota羊膜动物arthropod节肢动物 coelenterate腔肠动物 annelid环节动物cell membrane&plasma membrane细胞膜 epithelial tissue上皮组织connective tissue结缔组织 cartilage tissue软骨组织osseous tissue骨组织 muscular tissue肌肉组织cardiac muscle心肌 intercalated disc闰盘Nissl’s body尼氏小体 colony &group群体meroblastic cleavage不完全卵裂 colonial theory 群体说gastrovascular cavity消化循环腔 muscle system肌肉体系excretory system排泄系统 reproductive system生殖系统digestive system消化系统 archinephric duct原肾管basal lamina & basal membrane基膜 cross-fertilization异体受精self—fertilization自体受精 final host终寄主first intermidate host第一中间寄主 semicircular canal半规管second intermediate host第二中间寄主Genetics遗传学heredity 遗传 variation 变异 gene 基因pisum sativum 豌豆 segregation 分离 gamete 生殖细胞zygote 合子 allele 等位基因 genotype 基因型phenotype 表现型 test cross 测交 oryza sativa 水稻diploid 二倍体 haploid 单倍体 centromere 着丝粒satellite 随体 linker 连丝 mitosis 有丝分裂mesoblast中胚层 spindle 纺锤体 interphase 间期spindle fiber 纺锤丝vicia faba蚕豆 nucleoplasm 核质spermatogenous 精原细胞 oogonium 卵原细胞 spermatid 精细胞Phenocopy 拟表型 epistasis上位效应 mutant突变型gametic lethal配子致死 zygotic lethal合子致死 autosome 常染色体dominant lethal显性致死 carrier 携带者 homozygote 纯合体heterozygote 杂合体 genotype 基因型 phenotype 表现型linkage group 连锁群 interference 干涉 coincidence 并发率genetic map 遗传学图 wild type野生型 mutation 突变heterokaryon 异核体 auxotroph 营养缺陷型 strain 菌株recipient 受体 donor 供体 fragment 片段induction 诱导 prophage 原噬菌体 transduction 转导Mendel's laws 孟德尔定律 law of segregation 分离定律first filial generation 子一代 parental generation 亲代dominant character 显性性状 recessive character 隐性性状hereditary determinant 遗传因子 parental combination 亲组合recombination 重组合 punnett square 棋盘法Mendelian character 孟德尔性状 primary constriction 初级缢痕secondary constriction 次级缢痕 nucleolar organizer 核仁形成区first polar body 第一极体 second polar body 第二极体sister chromatids 姐妹染色单体 female gametic nucleus 卵核multiple alleles 复等位基因 sex—chromosome性染色体sex—linked inheritance 伴性遗传 primary constriction 初级缢痕secondary constriction 次级缢痕 complementary gene互补基因homologous chromosome 同源染色体 sister chromatids 姐妹染色单体secondary oocyte 次级卵母细胞 three-point testcross 三点测交primary spermatocyte 初级精母细胞secondary spermatocyte 次级精母细胞first division segregation 第一次分裂分离second division segregation 第二次分裂分离law of independent assortment 自由组合定律Biochemistry 生物化学essential element必需元素 trace elements微量元素 proteoglycan蛋白聚糖amino acid氨基酸 primary structure 一级结构 random coil无规卷曲structural domain 结构域 subunit亚基 degeneration变性adenine腺嘌呤 guanine鸟嘌呤 cytosine胞嘧啶thymine 胸腺嘧啶 uracil尿嘧啶 nucleoside 核苷nucleotide核苷酸 base pairing碱基配对 base pair碱基对数base碱基数 gyrase旋转酶 nucleosome核小体complementary DNA互补DNA plasmid质粒 transposons转座子repetitive sequence重复序列 exon外显子 intron内含子variable loop可变环 ribonuclease核糖核酸酶 renaturation复性hyperchromic effect增色效应 base stacking force碱基堆积力 annealing退火melting-out temperature熔解温度 hypochromic effect减色效应 maltose麦芽糖sucrose蔗糖 lactose乳糖 starch淀粉glycogen糖原 cellulose纤维素 cellulase纤维素酶selectivity选择性 substrate底物 holoenzyme全酶cofactor辅因子 coenzyme辅酶 oxidase氧化酶metabolism新陈代谢 assimilation同化作用 catabolism异化作用metabolite代谢产物 biological oxidation 生物氧化 cytochrome细胞色素rotenone鱼藤酮 amytal阿密妥 antimycin A抗霉素A cyanide氰化物 glycolysis糖酵解 ethanol乙醇citrate柠檬酸 cis-aconitate 顺乌头酸 succinic acid琥珀酸oxaloacetic acid草酰乙酸 acetyl—coenzyme乙酰辅酶 fumarate延胡索酸glyoxylate cycle 乙醛酸循环 malate苹果酸 fatty acid 脂肪酸carbon unit一碳单位 replicon复制子 core enzyme 核心酶primosome引发体 Okazaki fragment冈崎片段 leading chain 前导链lagging strand后随链 terminator终止子 telomere端粒telomerase 端粒酶 replication fork复制叉 vector载体promoter启动子 terminator终止子 operon操纵子codon密码子 degeneracy简并性 hormone激素citric acid cycle 柠檬酸循环 deamination脱氨基作用 urea cycle尿素循环euchromatin常染色质 messenger RNA信使RNAtransfer RNA转移RNA ribosome RNA核糖体RNAmetabolic regulation代谢调节 feedback regulation反馈调节structural gene结构基因 promoter gene启动基因operator gene操纵基因 regulator gene调节基因termination factor终止因子 triplet code三联体密码initiator codon起始密码 termination codon终止密码semiconservative replication半保留复制 ornithine cycle鸟氨酸循环ketogenic amino acid生酮氨基酸 glucogenic amino acid生糖氨基酸oxidative deamination氧化脱氨作用 transamination转氨基作用reverse transcription逆转录 decarboxylation脱羧作用semidiscontinuous replication半不连续复制 reverse transcriptase 逆转录酶missense mutation错义突变 synonymous mutation同义突变neutral mutation中性突变 nonsense mutation无义突变phosphatidic acid 磷脂酸 essential amino acids 必需氨基酸dihydrouracil loop二氢尿嘧啶环 anticodon loop反密码子环double—strand circular DNA 双链环形DNA superhelical DNA 超螺旋DNA open circular DNA 开环DNA linear DNA 线形DNAbase stacking force 碱基堆积力 secondary structure二级结构super-secondary structure超二级结构 tertiary structure三级结构quaternary structure四级结构 negative supercoil DNA负超螺旋DNA positive supercoil DNA正超螺旋DNAGlyceraldehyde-3-phosphate甘油醛-3—二磷酸glucogenic and ketogenic amino acid生糖兼生酮氨基酸restriction endonuclease限制性内切酶polymerase chain reaction聚合酶链反应Microbiology微生物学living creatures 生物 culture medium 培养基 lawn菌苔culture plate 培养平板 bacteria 细菌 archaea 古生菌eukaryote真核生物 prokaryote 原核生物 protozoan 原生动物hypha 菌丝 mycoplasma 支原体 yeast 酵母菌plasmolysis 质壁分离Escherichia Coli大肠杆菌 murein胞壁质peptidoglycan 肽聚糖 mucopeptide黏肽 outer membrane外膜chromosome染色体 nucleolus 核仁 nucleoid 拟核chromatin 染色质 centromere 着丝粒 telomere 端粒protoplast 原生质体 mycoplasma 支原体 glycoprotein 糖蛋白mesosome 间体 cytoplasm细胞质 megnetosome磁小体nucleoid拟核 glycocalyx 糖被 capsule 荚膜flagellum 鞭毛 lysosome 溶酶体 chloroplast 叶绿体thylakoid类囊体 inorganic salt 无机盐 peptone 蛋白胨sulfur bacteria 硫细菌 beef extract牛肉膏 vitamin 维生素inclusion body 内含物 lithotroph 无机营养型 medium 培养基agar 琼脂 organotroph 有机营养型 antiport 逆向运输active transport 主动运输 pinocytosis 胞饮作用 catabolism 分解代谢passive transport 被动运输 uniport 单向运输 anabolism 合成代谢 fermentation发酵 batch culture 分批培养 log phase 对数生长期stationary phase 稳定生长期 lag phase 迟缓期 decline phase衰亡期aerobe 好氧菌 antibiotic 抗生素 antigenome 反基因组transformation 转化 genome 基因组 plasmid 质粒transforming factor 转化因子 diploid 二倍体 haploid 单倍体transposable element 转座因子 conjugation接合作用 transposon转座子phenotype 表型 genotype基因型 auxotroph营养缺陷型wild—type野生型 transition 转换 transversion 颠换spontaneous mutation 自发突变 reverse mutation 回复突变 sexduction 性导transduction 转导 promoter 启动子 operon 操纵子recombination repair 重组修复 repressor 阻遏蛋白 corepressor辅阻遏物clone 克隆 denaturation 变性 annealing 退火extension 延伸 cloning vector 克隆载体 replicon 复制子telomere 端粒 cohesive end 黏性末端 promoter 启动子terminator 终止子 gene therapy 基因治疗 phylogeny 系统发育ammonification 氨化作用 nitrification 硝化作用denitrification 反硝化作用 expression vector 表达载体aerobic respiration有氧呼吸 anaerobic respiration无氧呼吸origin of replication 复制起始点 incompatibility 不亲和性 gene mutation 基因突变 synonymous mutation 同义突变chromosomal aberration 染色体畸变 missense mutation 错义突变frame-shift mutation 移码突变 lactose operon 乳糖操纵子negative transcription control 负转录调控 tryptophan operon 色氨酸操纵子cytoplasmic inheritance 细胞质遗传 genetic engineering 基因工程recombinant DNA technology 重组DNA技术 palindromic structure 回文结构spread plate method 涂布平板法 pour plate method 倾注培养法streak plate method 平板划线法 shake tube method 稀释摇管法continuous culture 连续培养。

化学结构和药物代谢ChemicalStructureandMetabolism

Aldehyde oxidase
• Aldehyde oxidase can oxidize a number of substitute d pyrroles(吡咯), pyridines(吡啶), primidines and pur ines (嘌呤).
• And its substrates include methotrexate (甲氨蝶呤), quinidine (奎尼定) and cyclophosphamide (环磷酰胺).
Cytochrome P450 Diamine oxidase (氧化酶)
Epoxide (环氧化物) hydrolase
Flavin(黄素) Monooxygenase
Phase
Reaction
Localication
I
Oxidation
Cytosol(胞质溶胶)
I
Oxidation
Mitochondria,
• The commonest FMO reaction is the oxidation of nuc leophilic tertiary amines to N-oxides, although prima ry and secondary amines and several sulfur-containin g drugs are also substrates.
I
N-acetyl transferase
II
Peptidase (肽酶)
I
Quinone (醌) oxidoreductase
I
Sulfotransferase (硫转移酶)
II
Xanthine (黄嘌呤) oxidase

大球盖菇腐败真菌的分离、鉴定及生长特性研究

刘鑫燕，李占峰，彭帮柱. 大球盖菇腐败真菌的分离、鉴定及生长特性研究[J]. 食品工业科技，2024，45（9）：131−139. doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2023060278LIU Xinyan, LI Zhanfeng, PENG Bangzhu. Isolation, Identification and Growth Characteristics of Spoilage Fungi from Stropharia rugosoannulata [J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2024, 45(9): 131−139. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2023060278· 生物工程 ·大球盖菇腐败真菌的分离、鉴定及生长特性研究刘鑫燕1，李占峰2，彭帮柱1,*（1.华中农业大学食品科学技术学院，湖北武汉 430000；2.漯河微康生物科技有限公司，河南漯河 462300）摘　要：目的：为避免微生物生长引起的大球盖菇褐变和腐败，亟待开展大球盖菇腐败菌种类的相关研究，并为探究贮藏保鲜技术提供理论依据。

方法：对大球盖菇的腐败菌进行分离、纯化，通过致腐性分析筛选出优势腐败菌并对其进行形态学鉴定、分子生物学鉴定及生长特性研究。

结果：分离得到镰刀菌属16株、曲霉属14株，根霉属4株。

通过致腐性分析筛选出四种致腐性强的腐败菌，经形态学和分子生物学手段鉴定其分别为假嗜花镰刀菌（Fusarium pseudoanthophilum ）、黑曲霉（Aspergillus niger ）、单孢根霉菌（Rhizopus azygosporus ）和产紫蓝状菌（Talaromyces purpureogenus ）。

惠州2024年02版小学5年级上册第二次英语第2单元期末试卷

惠州2024年02版小学5年级上册英语第2单元期末试卷考试时间:90分钟（总分:120）考试人：_________题号一二三总分得分一、(选择题)总分:45分(1分/题)1、What do you need to wear when it's raining?A) SunglassesB) HatC) RaincoatD) Scarf2、What do you call a small animal that lives in a shell?中文解释：生活在壳里的小动物叫什么？A) SnailB) CrabC) Fish3、Which plant is known for its strong fragrance?中文解释：哪种植物以其浓郁的香气而闻名？A. LavenderB. CactusC. Grass4、What is the English word for "经济作物"?A) Cash cropsB) Food cropsC) Fiber cropsD) Forage crops5、What do you call a person who takes photographs?A) ArtistB) PhotographerC) PainterD) Writer6、What do we call a plant that produces flowers and fruits?中文解释：我们称生产花朵和果实的植物为？A. AngiospermB. GymnospermC. Algae7、What is the opposite of fast?A. QuickB. SlowC. Speedy8、What is the English translation of "河马"?A) RhinoB) HippoC) ElephantD) Buffalo9、What does "植物绿色发展" mean in English?A) Plant green developmentB) Agricultural developmentC) Environmental developmentD) Ecological development10、What do you call the container for water?A) BottleB) CupC) GlassD) All of the above11、How many legs does a spider have?A) SixB) EightC) TenD) Four12、Which part of the plant is used for reproduction?中文解释：植物的哪个部分用于繁殖？A. RootsB. LeavesC. Flowers13、What do you call the part of the plant that grows underground?A) StemB) LeafC) RootD) Flower14、Where do fish live?中文解释：鱼生活在哪里？A) On landB) In waterC) In the trees15、She is wearing a beautiful necklace. 她戴着一条漂亮的项链。

托福阅读真题第49篇TheAngiospermRevolution

托福阅读真题第49篇TheAngiospermRevolution在所有种类的现代陆地植物中，有一组占主导地位：被子植物或开花植物。

它们拥有超过250,000 种生物，是大多数栖息地中的大多数植物——海洋环境除外，海洋环境仍然是更原始藻类的栖息地。

但是被子植物是植物进化中相对较新的发展。

它们出现于中生代中期（约 2 亿年前至 1.45 亿年前），但距今约 1 亿年ago they had pushed the conifers (plants having cone-shaped reproductive structures rather than flowers for reproduction) into the background. Even earlier types of plants such as ferns are now restricted to certain wet habitats, and many of the dominant gymnosperms (plants with exposed seeds, such as conifers) of the early Mesozoic have now been largely replaced by angiosperms; the formerly dominant gymnosperms that did not become completely extinct now survive in comparatively few places.Why were the angiosperms so successful? A major advantage they have over more primitive plants is their efficient mode of reproduction- -the flower and all of its complex reproductive mechanisms that ensure success. Instead of the inefficient wind-pollinated gymnosperm seed, which wastes a huge amount of pollen and is dependent on random breezes, angiosperms have evolved flowers specifically as devices to attract pollinators- -mainly insects (especially moths, butterflies, and bees) but also birds, bats, and other flying creatures. The pollinators ensure that the pollen is carried directly from one flower of the same species to another, which is more efficient than relying on the wind. This process of delivery is called cross-pollination. The reproductive cycle is highly modified: the ovules (egg-producing organs) are fully enclosed within protectivecovers called carpels, which form the core of the flower. The carpel protects the ovule from drying out, from fungal infection, and from predation by plant-eating insects. Pollen-producing organs called stamens are surrounded by petals (which serve to attract the pollinator and guide it to the ovules in many cases) and an outer covering of sepals for protection. Typically, a pollinator gets pollen stuck onto it as it climbs into a flower, seeking the nectar that is generated to lure it. The ovule is usually pollinated by the sperm carried from a different flower, thus minimizing self-fertilization (but angiosperms can also self-fertilize if cross-pollination is not possible).Once the pollen has been delivered, a pollen tube transports the sperm to the ovules. Here angiosperms have another advantage: double fertilization. The pollen carry two sperm nuclei, one of which fuses with the egg nucleus to form the embryo, the other of which fuses with two other nuclei to form a food supply for the embryo. This means that angiosperms don't need to invest a lot of energy creating food stores for each seed until it is fertilized (unlike gymnosperms, which create food even for infertile seeds).The entire process of fertilization and producing an embryo takes place in only a few weeks or days, so angiosperms can sprout, flower, reproduce, and die in a single season if necessary. By contrast, most gymnosperms are slow to grow and reproduce (usually taking at least eighteen months between reproductive cycles) and cannot accomplish the entire process in a single season. For gymnosperms such as evergreen conifers to live in highly seasonal, cold-winter climates, they must be able to survive the cold and shut down much of their physiological systems during winter. Many angiosperms, on the other hand, areannuals- sprouting in the spring, flowering, and producing seeds that can survive until the next winter while the rest of the plant dies. This rapid reproduction enables them to quickly exploit habitats that other plants cannot.Finally, angiosperms are known not only for their rapid growth rates but for their ability to grow back quickly after they have been munched by animals. Think of how quickly the grass grows back after you mow it (or an animal grazes it). By contrast, ferns cannot grow back so quickly after they have been heavily eaten, and often die if the damage is too great (such as when an animal eats the growing tip of the plant)- whereas many angiosperms can be eaten right down to their roots but grow back again.1.Of all the kinds of modern land plants one group dominates: the angiosperms, or flowering plants. With over 250,000 living species, they are the majority of plants of most habitats- except marine environments, which are still habitats for the more primitive algae. But angiosperms were a comparatively recent development in plant evolution. They arose in the mid-Mesozoic (approximately 200 million years ago to 145 million years ago), but by about 100 million years ago they had pushed the conifers (plants having cone-shaped reproductive structures rather than flowers for reproduction) into the background. Even earlier types of plants such as ferns are now restricted to certain wet habitats, and many of the dominant gymnosperms (plants with exposed seeds, such as conifers) of the early Mesozoic have now been largely replaced by angiosperms; the formerly dominant gymnosperms that did not become completely extinct now survive in comparatively few places.。