two concepts of liberty(两种自由概念英语版)

READING1‘T wo C on ce pts o f Libe rty’I s aiah Be rl i nI s aiah Be r li n’s e ss a y‘T wo C on ce pts o f Libe rty’*i s on e o f t he m ostim port a nt p iece s o f post-w a r po li t ical p hil osop h y.I t w a s or igi n all y gi v e na s a lec tur e i n O x f or d i n1958a n d ha s bee n m u ch di s c uss ed s i n ce t he n.I nt hi s e xtr ac t f ro m t he lec tur e Be r li n ide nt ifie s t he two diffe r e nt c on ce ptso f f r eed o m–n ega t i v e a n d pos i t i v e–w hich prov ide t he f r ame wor k f or hi sw ide-r a n gi n g di s c uss i on.Nega t i v e f r eed o m i s,rou ghl y,a ma tt e r o f w hichd oors lie op e n to you,i t i s c on ce rn ed e x cl us i v el y w i t h opportun i t ie s;pos i t i v e f r eed o m i s a qu e st i on o f w he t he r or not you ca n g o t h rou gh t hed oors,w he t he r you a r e ma st e r of your life.Be r li n po i nts out t ha thi stor icall y t he c on ce pt o f pos i t i v e f r eed o m ha s bee n us ed to c ontro l a n dr e pr e ss i n di v id u al s i n t he n ame o f libe rty.IT o c o e r ce a m a n i s to de pr i v e hi m o f f r eed om–f r eed om f rom w ha t?A lmoste v e ry mor a l i st i n h um a n hi story ha s pr ai s edf r eed om.Like ha pp i n e ss a n dg oo d n e ss,l ike n a tur e a n d r ea l i ty,t he m ea n i n g o f t hi s t e rm i s so porous t ha tt he r e i s l i ttl e i nt e rpr e t a t i on t ha t i t s ee ms ab l e to r e s i st.I d o not propos e todi s c uss ei t he r t he hi story or t he mor e t ha n two h un d r ed s e ns e s o f t hi s prot ea nwor d,r ec or ded b y hi stor ia ns o f idea s.I propos e to e x a m i n e no mor e t ha n twoo f t he s e s e ns e s–b ut t h os e ce ntr a l on e s,w i t h a g r ea t dea l o f h um a n hi storybehi n d t he m,a n d,I da r e s a y,st i ll to c om e.The fi rst o f t he s e pol i t ica l s e ns e s o ff r eed om or l ibe rty(I s ha ll us e b ot h wor d s to m ea n t he s a m e),w hich(f ollow i n gmu ch pr ecede nt)I s ha ll ca ll t he‘n ega t i v e’s e ns e,i s i nvolv ed i n t he a nsw e r to t hequ e st i on‘Wha t i s t he a r ea w i t hi n w hich t he su bjec t–a p e rson or g roup o fp e rsons–i s or s h oul d be l ef t to d o or be w ha t he i s ab l e to d o or be,w i t h outi nt e r fe r e n ce b y ot he r p e rsons?’The s ec on d,w hich I s ha ll ca ll t he pos i t i v es e ns e,i s i nvolv ed i n t he a nsw e r to t he qu e st i on‘Wha t,or w h o,i s t he sour ce o fc ontrol or i nt e r fe r e n ce,t ha t ca n de t e rm i n e som e on e tod o,or be,one t hi n gr a t he r t ha n a not he r?’The two qu e st i ons a r e c l ea rly diffe r e nt,e v e n t h ou gh t hea nsw e rs to t he m m a y ov e rl a p.155ARGUMENTS FOR FREEDOMThe not i on o f‘n ega t i v e’f r eed omI a m norm a lly s aid to be f r ee to t he deg r ee to w hich no h um a n bei n g i nt e r fe r e sw i t h my ac t i v i ty.P ol i t ica l l ibe rty i n t hi s s e ns e i s s i mply t he a r ea w i t hi n w hich am a n ca n ac t uno b stru c t ed b y ot he rs.If I a m pr e v e nt ed b y ot he r p e rsons f romd o i n g w ha t I c oul d ot he rw i s e d o,I a m to t ha t deg r ee unf r ee;a n d if t hi s a r ea i sc ontr ac t ed b y ot he r m e n be yon d a ce rt ai n m i n i mum,I ca n be de s c r ibed a sbei n g c o e r ced,or,i t m a y be,e nsl a v ed.C o e r ci on i s not,h ow e v e r,a t e rm t ha tc ov e rs e v e ry f orm o f i n abi l i ty.If I s a y t ha t I a m un ab l e to j ump mor e t ha n t e nfee t i n t he ai r,or ca nnot r ead beca us e I a m b l i n d,or ca nnot un de rst a n d t heda r ke r p age s o f Hege l,i t woul d be ecce ntr ic to s a y t ha t I a m to t ha t deg r eee nsl a v ed or c o e r ced.C o e r ci on i mpl ie s t he de l ibe r a t e i nt e r fe r e n ce of ot he rh um a n bei n g s w i t hi n t he a r ea i n w hich I c oul d ot he rw i s e ac t.Y ou l ack pol i t ica ll ibe rty or f r eed om only if you a r e pr e v e nt ed f rom a tt ai n i n g a g o a l b y h um a nbei n g s.1Me r e i n ca p aci ty to a tt ai n a g o a l i s not l ack o f pol i t ica l f r eed om.2Thi si s b rou gh t out b y t he us e o f su ch mo de rn e xpr e ss i ons a s‘ec onom ic f r eed om’a n d i ts c ount e rp a rt,‘ec onom ic sl a v e ry’.I t i s a r g u ed,v e ry pl a us ib ly,t ha t if am a n i s too poor to aff or d som e t hi n g on w hich t he r e i s no l ega l ba n–a lo af o fb r ead,a j ourn e y roun d t he worl d,r ec ours e to t he l a w c ourts–he i s a s l i ttl e f r eeto ha v e i t a s he woul d be if i t w e r e f or bidde n hi m b y La w.If my pov e rty w e r e aki n d o f di s ea s e,w hich pr e v e nt ed m e f rom b uy i n g b r ead or p a y i n g f or t hej ourn e y roun d t he worl d,or ge tt i n g my ca s e hea r d,a s l a m e n e ss pr e v e nts m ef rom runn i n g,t hi s i n abi l i ty woul d not n a tur a lly be de s c r ibed a s a l ack o ff r eed om,l ea st o f a ll pol i t ica l f r eed om.I t i s only beca us e I be l ie v e t ha t myi n abi l i ty to ge t a gi v e n t hi n g i s d u e to t he fac t t ha t ot he r h um a n bei n g s ha v em ade a rr a n ge m e nts w he r eb y I a m,w he r ea s ot he rs a r e not,pr e v e nt ed f romha v i n g e nou gh mon e y w i t h w hich to p a y f or i t,t ha t I t hi n k mys e l f a v ic t i m o fc o e r ci on or sl a v e ry.I n ot he r word s,t hi s use of t he t e rm de p e n d s on a p a rt ic ul a rso cia l a n d ec onom ic t he ory ab out t he ca us e s o f my pov e rty or w eak n e ss.If myl ack o f m a t e r ia l m ea ns i s d u e to my l ack o f m e nt a l or p h ys ica l ca p aci ty,t he n Ibegi n to sp eak o f bei n g de pr i v ed o f f r eed om(a n d not s i mply o f pov e rty)only ifI acce pt t he t he ory.3If,i n addi t i on,I be l ie v e t ha t I a m bei n g ke pt i n w a nt b y asp ecific a rr a n ge m e nt w hich I c ons ide r un j ust or un fai r,I sp eak o f ec onom icsl a v e ry or oppr e ss i on.‘The n a tur e o f t hi n g s d o e s not m adde n us,only i ll w i lld oe s’,s aid R ouss ea u.The c r i t e r i on of oppr e ss i on i s t he p a rt t ha t I be l ie v e to bepl a y ed b y ot he r h um a n bei n g s,di r ec tly or i n di r ec tly,w i t h or w i t h out t hei nt e nt i on o f d o i n g so,i n f rustr a t i n g my w i s he s.B y bei n g f r ee i n t hi s s e ns e Im ea n not bei n g i nt e r fe r ed w i t h b y ot he rs.The w ide r t he a r ea o f non-i nt e r fe r e n ce t he w ide r my f r eed om.Thi s i s w ha t t he c l a ss ica l E n g l i s h pol i t ica l p hi losop he rs m ea nt w he n t he yus ed t hi s wor d.4The y di s ag r eed ab out h ow w ide t he a r ea c oul d or s h oul d be. 156READING1‘TWO CONCEPTS OF LIBERTY’The y suppos ed t ha t i t c oul d not,a s t hi n g s w e r e,be unl i m i t ed,beca us e if i tw e r e,i t woul d e nt ai l a st a t e i n w hich a ll m e n c oul d b oun d l e ssly i nt e r fe r e w i t ha ll ot he r m e n;a n d t hi s ki n d o f‘n a tur a l’f r eed om woul d l ead to so cia l cha os i nw hich m e n’s m i n i mum n eed s woul d not be s a t i s fied;or e ls e t he l ibe rt ie s o f t hew eak woul d be suppr e ss ed b y t he stron g.Beca us e t he y p e r cei v ed t ha t h um a npurpos e s a n d ac t i v i t ie s d o not a utom a t ica lly ha rmon i z e w i t h on e a not he r;a n d,beca us e(w ha t e v e r t hei r o fficia l d o c tr i n e s)t he y put high v a lu e on ot he r g o a ls,su ch a s j ust ice,or ha pp i n e ss,or c ultur e,or s ec ur i ty,or v a ry i n g deg r ee s o fe qu a l i ty,t he y w e r e pr e p a r ed to c urt ai lf r eed om i n t he i nt e r e sts o f ot he r v a lu e sa n d,i n deed,o f f r eed om i ts e l f.F or,w i t h out t hi s,i t w a s i mposs ib l e toc r ea t e t heki n d o f a sso cia t i on t ha t t he y t h ou gh t de s i r ab l e.C ons e qu e ntly,i t i s a ssum ed b yt he s e t hi n ke rs t ha t t he a r ea o f m e n’s f r ee ac t i on must be l i m i t ed b y l a w.B ute qu a lly i t i s a ssum ed,e sp ecia lly b y su ch l ibe rt a r ia ns a s L o cke a n d Mi ll i nE n g l a n d,a n d C onst a nt a n d T o c qu e v i ll e i nF r a n ce,t ha t t he r e ou gh t to e x i st ace rt ai n m i n i mum a r ea o f p e rson a l f r eed om w hich must on no acc ount bev i ol a t ed;f or if i t i s ov e rst e pp ed,t he i n di v id u a l w i ll fi n d hi ms e l f i n a n a r ea toon a rrow f or e v e n t ha t m i n i mum de v e lopm e nt o f hi s n a tur a l fac ult ie s w hicha lon e m ake s i t poss ib l e to pursu e,a n d e v e n toc on cei v e,t he v a r i ous e nd s w hichm e n h ol d g oo d or r igh t or s ac r ed.I t f ollows t ha t a f ront ie r must be d r a wnbe tw ee n t he a r ea o f pr i v a t e l ife a n d t ha t o f pu b l ic a ut h or i ty.Whe r e i t i s to bed r a wn i s a m a tte r of a rg um e nt,i n deed o f hagg l i n g.Me n a r e l a r ge lyi nt e r de p e n de nt,a n d no m a n’s ac t i v i ty i s so c ompl e t e ly pr i v a t e a s n e v e r too b stru c t t he l i v e s o f ot he rs i n a ny w a y.‘F r eed om f or t he p ike i s dea t h f or t hem i nnows’;t he l ibe rty o f som e must de p e n d on t he r e str ai nt o f ot he rs.5S t i ll,apr ac t ica l c omprom i s e ha s to be f oun d.Phi losop he rs w i t h a n opt i m i st ic v ie w o f h um a n n a tur e,a n d a be l ief i n t heposs ibi l i ty o f ha rmon i z i n g h um a n i nt e r e st,su ch a s L o cke or Ada m S m i t h a n d,i n som e moo d s,Mi ll,be l ie v ed t ha t so cia l ha rmony a n d pro g r e ss w e r ec omp a t ib l e w i t h r e s e rv i n g a l a r ge a r ea f or pr i v a t e l ife ov e r w hich n ei t he r t hest a t e nor a ny ot he r a ut h or i ty must be a llow ed to tr e sp a ss.H o bbe s,a n d t h os ew h o ag r eed w i t h hi m,e sp ecia lly c ons e rv a t i v e or r eac t i on a ry t hi n ke rs,a r g u edt ha t if m e n w e r e to be pr e v e nt ed f rom de stroy i n g on e a not he r,a n d m aki n gso cia l l ife a j un g l e or a w i l de rn e ss,g r ea t e r s afeg u a r d s must be i nst i tut ed tokee p t he m i n t hei r pl ace s,a n d w i s hed c orr e spon di n g ly to i n c r ea s e t he a r ea o fce ntr a l i z ed c ontrol,a n d dec r ea s e t ha t o f t he i n di v id u a l.B ut b ot h s ide s ag r eedt ha t som e port i on o f h um a n e x i st e n ce must r e m ai n i n de p e n de nt o f t he sp he r eo f so cia l c ontrol.T o i nv ade t ha t pr e s e rv e,h ow e v e r sm a ll,woul d be de spot i sm.The most e loqu e nt o f a ll defe n de rs o ff r eed om a n d pr i v ac y,Be n ja m i n C onst a nt,w h o had not f or g ott e n t he Jac o bi n dic t a tors hi p,dec l a r ed t ha t a t t he v e ry l ea stt he l ibe rty o f r e l igi on,op i n i on,e xpr e ss i on,prop e rty,must be g u a r a nt eed157ARGUMENTS FOR FREEDOMagai nst a r bi tr a ry i nv a s i on.Jeffe rson,B ur ke,Pai n e,Mi ll,c omp i l ed diffe r e ntca t a lo g u e s o f i n di v id u a l l ibe rt ie s,b ut t he a r g um e nt f or kee p i n g a ut h or i ty a tba y i s a lw a ys su b st a nt ia lly t he s a m e.We must pr e s e rv e a m i n i mum a r ea o fp e rson a l f r eed om if w e a r e not to‘deg r ade or de ny our n a tur e’.We ca nnotr e m ai n ab solut e ly f r ee,a n d must gi v e up som e o f our l ibe rty to pr e s e rv e t her e st.B ut tot a l s e l f-surr e n de r i s s e l f-defea t i n g.Wha t t he n must t he m i n i mumbe?Tha t w hich a m a n ca nnot gi v e up w i t h out o ffe n di n g agai nst t he e ss e n ce o fhi s h um a n n a tur e.Wha t i s t hi s e ss e n ce?Wha t a r e t he st a n da r d s w hich i te nt ai ls?Thi s ha s bee n,a n d p e r ha ps a lw a ys w i ll be,a m a tt e r of i n fi n i t e deba t e.B ut w ha t e v e r t he pr i n ci pl e i n t e rms o f w hich t he a r ea o f non-i nt e r fe r e n ce i s tobe d r a wn,w he t he r i t i s t ha t o f n a tur a l l a w or n a tur a l r igh ts,or o f ut i l i ty or t hepronoun ce m e nts o f a ca t eg or ica l i mp e r a t i v e,or t he s a n c t i ty o f t he so cia lc ontr ac t,or a ny ot he r c on ce pt w i t h w hich m e n ha v e sou gh t to c l a r if y a n dj ust if y t hei r c onv ic t i ons,l ibe rty i n t hi s s e ns e m ea ns l ibe rty f rom:ab s e n ce o fi nt e r fe r e n ce be yon d t he s hif t i n g,b ut a lw a ys r ec o g n i z ab l e,f ront ie r.‘The onlyf r eed om w hich de s e rv e s t he n a m e i s t ha t o f pursu i ng our own g oo d i n our ownw a y’,s aid t he most ce l eb r a t ed o f i ts cha mp i ons.If t hi s i s so,i s c ompuls i on e v e rj ust ified?Mi ll had no d ou b t t ha t i t w a s.Si n ce j ust ice de m a n d s t ha t a lli n di v id u a ls be e nt i tl ed to a m i n i mum o f f r eed om,a ll ot he r i n di v id u a ls w e r e o fn ece ss i ty to be r e str ai n ed,if n eed be b y f or ce,f rom de pr i v i n g a nyon e o f i t.I n deed,t he w h ol e f un c t i on o f l a w w a s t he pr e v e nt i on o f j ust su ch c oll i s i ons:t hest a t e w a s r ed u ced to w ha t La ss a ll e c ont e mptuously de s c r ibed a s t he f un c t i onso f a n igh t-w a t ch m a n or tr affic pol ice m a n.Wha t m ade t he prot ec t i on o f i n di v id u a l l ibe rty so s ac r ed to Mi ll?I n hi sfa mous e ss a y he dec l a r e s t ha t unl e ss m e n a r e l ef t to l i v e a s t he y w i s h‘i n t hep a t h w hich m e r e ly c on ce rns t he ms e lv e s’,ci v i l i z a t i on ca nnot ad v a n ce;t hetrut h w i ll not,f or l ack o f a f r ee m a r ke t i n idea s,c om e to l igh t;t he r e w i ll be nos c op e f or spont a n ei ty,or igi n a l i ty,ge n i us,f or m e nt a l e n e r g y,f or mor a l c our age.S o cie ty w i ll be c rus hed b y t he w eigh t o f‘c oll ec t i v e m edi o c r i ty’.Wha t e v e r i sr ich a n d di v e rs ified w i ll be c rus hed b y t he w eigh t o f c ustom,b y m e n’s c onst a ntt e n de n c y to c on f orm i ty,w hich b r eed s only‘w i t he r ed ca p aci t ie s’,‘p i n ched a n dhideb oun d’,‘c r a mp ed a n d w a rp ed’h um a n bei n g s.‘Paga n s e l f-a ss e rt i on i s a swort h y a s Ch r i st ia n s e l f-de n ia l.’‘A ll t he e rrors w hich a m a n i s l ike ly to c omm i tagai nst ad v ice a n d w a rn i n g a r e fa r outw eighed b y t he e v i l o f a llow i n g ot he rsto c onstr ai n hi m to w ha t t he y dee m i s g oo d.’The defe n ce o f l ibe rty c ons i sts i nt he‘n ega t i v e’g o a l o f w a r di n g o ff i nt e r fe r e n ce.T o t h r ea t e n a m a n w i t hp e rs ec ut i on unl e ss he su b m i ts to a l ife i n w hich he e x e r ci s e s no ch o ice s o f hi sg o a ls;to b lo ck bef or e hi m e v e ry d oor b ut on e,no m a tt e r h ow no b l e t heprosp ec t upon w hich i t op e ns,or h ow be n e vol e nt t he mot i v e s o f t h os e w h oa rr a n ge t hi s,i s to s i n agai nst t he trut h t ha t he i s a m a n,a bei n g w i t h a l ife o f hi s 158READING1‘TWO CONCEPTS OF LIBERTY’own to l i v e.Thi s i s l ibe rty a s i t ha s bee n c on cei v ed b y l ibe r a ls i n t he mo de rnworl d f rom t he da ys o f E r a smus(som e woul d s a y o f Occa m)to our own.E v e rypl ea f or ci v i l l ibe rt ie s a n d i n di v id u a l r igh ts,e v e ry prot e st agai nst e xplo i t a t i ona n d h um i l ia t i on,agai nst t he e n c ro ach m e nt o f pub l ic a ut h or i ty,or t he m a ssh ypnos i s o f c ustom or or ga n i z ed prop aga n da,spr i n g s f rom t hi s i n di v id u a l-i st ic,a n d mu ch di sput ed,c on ce pt i on o f m a n.Th r ee fac ts ab out t hi s pos i t i on m a y be not ed.I n t he fi rst pl ace Mi ll c on f us e stwo di st i n c t not i ons.O n e i s t ha t a ll c o e r ci on i s,i n so fa r a s i t f rustr a t e s h um a nde s i r e s,bad a s su ch,a lt h ou gh i t m a y ha v e to be a ppl ied to pr e v e nt ot he r,g r ea t e r e v i ls;w hi l e non-i nt e r fe r e n ce,w hich i s t he oppos i t e o f c o e r ci on,i s g oo da s su ch,a lt h ou gh i t i s not t he only g oo d.Thi s i s t he‘n ega t i v e’c on ce pt i on o fl ibe rty i n i ts c l a ss ica l f orm.The ot he r i s t ha t m e n s h oul d s eek to di s c ov e r t hetrut h,or to de v e lop a ce rt ai n typ e o f cha r ac t e r o f w hich Mi ll a pprov ed–fea rl e ss,or igi n a l,i m agi n a t i v e,i n de p e n de nt,non-c on f orm i n g to t he po i nt o fecce ntr ici ty,a n d so on–a n d t ha t trut h ca n be f oun d,a n d su ch cha r ac t e r ca n beb r ed,only i nc on di t i ons o f f r eed om.B ot h t he s e a r e l ibe r a l v ie ws,b ut t he y a r enot ide nt ica l,a n d t he c onn ec t i on be tw ee n t he m i s,a t be st,e mp i r ica l.N o on ewoul d a r g u e t ha t trut h or f r eed om o f s e l f-e xpr e ss i on c oul d f lour i s h w he r ed o g m a c rus he s a ll t h ou gh t.B ut t he e v ide n ce of hi story t e n d s to s h ow(a s,i n deed,w a s a r g u ed b y Ja m e s S t e p he n i n hi s f orm idab l e a tt ack on Mi ll i n hi sLibe rty,E qu a l i ty,F r a t e rn i ty)t ha t i nt eg r i ty,lov e o f trut h a n d fie ry i n di v id u-a l i sm g row a t l ea st a s o f t e n i n s e v e r e ly di s ci pl i n ed c ommun i t ie s a mon g,f ore x a mpl e,t he pur i t a n Ca lv i n i sts of Sc otl a n d or Ne w E ng l a n d,or un de r m i l i t a rydi s ci pl i n e,a s i n mor e tol e r a nt or i n diffe r e nt so cie t ie s;a n d if t hi s i s so acce pt ed,Mi ll’s a r g um e nt f or l ibe rty a s a n ece ss a ry c on di t i on f or t he g rowt h o f h um a nge n i us fa lls to t he g roun d.If hi s two g o a ls prov ed i n c omp a t ib l e,Mi ll woul d befaced w i t h a c ru e l di l e mm a,qu i t e a p a rt f rom t he f urt he r diffic ult ie s c r ea t ed b yt he i n c ons i st e n c y o f hi s d o c tr i n e s w i t h str ic t ut i l i t a r ia n i sm,e v e n i n hi s ownh um a n e v e rs i on o f i t.6I n t he s ec on d pl ace,t he d o c tr i n e i s c omp a r a t i v e ly mo de rn.The r e s ee ms tobe s ca r ce ly a ny di s c uss i on o f i n di v id u a l l ibe rty a s a c ons ci ous pol i t ica l idea l(a s oppos ed to i ts ac tu a l e x i st e n ce)i n t he a n cie nt worl d.C on d or ce t ha s a lr ead yr e m a r ked t ha t t he not i on o f i n di v id u a l r igh ts i s ab s e nt f rom t he l ega lc on ce pt i ons o f t he R om a ns a nd G r eek s;t hi s s ee ms to h ol d e qu a lly of t heJe w i s h,Chi n e s e,a n d a ll ot he r a n cie nt ci v i l i z a t i ons t ha t ha v e s i n ce c om e tol igh t.7The d om i n a t i on o f t hi s idea l ha s bee n t he e x ce pt i on r a t he r t ha n t herul e,e v e n i n t he r ece nt hi story o f t he We st.N or ha s l ibe rty i n t hi s s e ns e o f t e nf orm ed a r a lly i ng c ry f or t he g r ea t m a ss e s o f m a n ki n d.The de s i r e not to bei mp i n ged upon,to be l ef t to on e s e l f,ha s bee n a m a r k o f high ci v i l i z a t i on b ot hon t he p a rt o f i n di v id u a ls a n d c ommun i t ie s.The s e ns e o f pr i v ac y i ts e l f,o f t he159ARGUMENTS FOR FREEDOMa r ea o f p e rson a l r e l a t i ons hi ps a s som e t hi n g s ac r ed i n i ts own r igh t,de r i v e sf rom a c on ce pt i on o f f r eed om w hich,f or a ll i ts r e l igi ous roots,i s s ca r ce ly ol de r,i n i ts de v e lop ed st a t e,t ha n t he Re n ai ss a n ce or t he Ref orm a t i on.8Ye t i tsdec l i n e woul d m a r k t he dea t h o f a ci v i l i z a t i on,o f a n e nt i r e mor a l outloo k.The t hi r d cha r ac t e r i st ic o f t hi s not i on o f l ibe rty i s o f g r ea t e r i mport a n ce.I t i st ha t l ibe rty i n t hi s s e ns e i s not i n c omp a t ib l e w i t h som e ki n d s o f a uto c r ac y,or a ta ny r a t e w i t h t he ab s e n ce o f s e l f-g ov e rnm e nt.Libe rty i n t hi s s e ns e i spr i n ci p a lly c on ce rn ed w i t h t he a r ea o f c ontrol,not w i t h i ts sour ce.J ust a s ade mo c r ac y m a y,i n fac t,de pr i v e t he i n di v id u a l ci t i z e n o f a g r ea t m a ny l ibe rt ie sw hich he m igh t ha v e i n som e ot he r f orm o f so cie ty,so i t i s p e r fec tly c on cei v ab l et ha t a l ibe r a l-m i n ded de spot woul d a llow hi s su bjec ts a l a r ge m ea sur e o fp e rson a l f r eed om.The de spot w h o l ea v e s hi s su bjec ts a w ide a r ea o f l ibe rtym a y be un j ust,or e n c our age t he w i l de st i n e qu a l i t ie s,ca r e l i ttl e f or or de r,orv i rtu e,or k nowl edge,b ut prov ided he d o e s not c ur b t hei r l ibe rty,or a t l ea stc ur b s i t l e ss t ha n m a ny ot he r r egi m e s,he m ee ts w i t h Mi ll’s sp ecifica t i on.9F r eed om i n t hi s s e ns e i s not,a t a ny r a t e lo gica lly,c onn ec t ed w i t h de mo c r ac y ors e l f-g ov e rnm e nt.Se l f-g ov e rnm e nt m a y,on t he w h ol e,prov ide a be tt e rg u a r a nt ee o f t he pr e s e rv a t i on o f ci v i l l ibe rt ie s t ha n ot he r r egi m e s,a n d ha sbee n defe n ded a s su ch b y l ibe rt a r ia ns.B ut t he r e i s no n ece ss a ry c onn ec t i onbe tw ee n i n di v id u a l l ibe rty a n d de mo c r a t ic rul e.The a nsw e r to t he qu e st i on‘Wh o g ov e rns m e?’i s lo gica lly di st i n c t f rom t he qu e st i on‘H ow fa r d o e sg ov e rnm e nt i nt e r fe r e w i t h m e?’I t i s i n t hi s diffe r e n ce t ha t t he g r ea t c ontr a stbe tw ee n t he two c on ce pts o f n ega t i v e a n d pos i t i v e l ibe rty,i n t he e n d,c ons i sts.10F or t he‘pos i t i v e’s e ns e o f l ibe rty c om e s to l igh t if w e try to a nsw e rt he qu e st i on,not‘Wha t a m I f r ee to d o or be?’,b ut‘B y w h om a m I rul ed?’or‘Wh o i s to s a y w ha t I a m,a n d w ha t I a m not,to be or d o?’The c onn ec t i onbe tw ee n de mo c r ac y a n d i n di v id u a l l ibe rty i s a g oo d dea l mor e t e nuous t ha n i ts ee m ed to m a ny ad vo ca t e s o f b ot h.The de s i r e to be g ov e rn ed b y mys e l f,or a ta ny r a t e to p a rt ici p a t e i n t he pro ce ssb y w hich my l ife i s to be ac ontroll ed,m a ybe a s dee p a w i s h a s t ha t o f a f r ee a r ea f or ac t i on,a n d p e r ha ps hi stor ica llyol de r.B ut i t i s not a de s i r e f or t he s a m e t hi n g.S o diffe r e nt i s i t,i n deed,a s toha v e l ed i n t he e n d to t he g r ea t c l a s h o f ide olo gie s t ha t d om i n a t e s our worl d.F or i t i s t hi s–t he‘pos i t i v e’c on ce pt i on o f l ibe rty:not f r eed om f rom,b utf r eed om to–w hich t he adhe r e nts o f t he‘n ega t i v e’not i on r e pr e s e nt a s bei n g,a tt i m e s,no be tt e r t ha n a sp eci ous di s g u i s e f or b rut a l tyr a nny.The not i on o f pos i t i v e f r eed omThe‘pos i t i v e’s e ns e o f t he wor d‘l ibe rty’de r i v e s f rom t he w i s h on t he p a rt o f t hei n di v id u a l to be hi s own m a st e r.I w i s h my l ife a n d deci s i ons to de p e n d onmys e l f,not on e xt e rn a l f or ce s o f w ha t e v e r ki n d.I w i s h to be t he i nstrum e nt o f 160READING1‘TWO CONCEPTS OF LIBERTY’my own,not o f ot he r m e n’s ac ts o f w i ll.I w i s h to be a su bjec t,not a n o bjec t;to bemov ed b y r ea sons,b y c ons ci ous purpos e s w hich a r e my own,not b y ca us e sw hich affec t m e,a s i t w e r e,f rom outs ide.I w i s h to be som eb o d y,not no b o d y;ad oe r–decidi n g,not bei n g decidedf or,s e l f-di r ec t ed a n d not ac t ed upon b ye xt e rn a l n a tur e or b y ot he r m e n a s if I w e r e a t hi n g,or a n a n i m a l,or a sl a v ei n ca p ab l e o f pl a y i n g a h um a n rol e,t ha t i s,o f c on cei v i n g g o a ls a n d pol icie s o fmy own a n d r ea l i z i n g t he m.Thi s i s a t l ea st p a rt o f w ha t I m ea n w he n I s a y t ha tI a m r a t i on a l,a n d t ha t i t i s my r ea son t ha t di st i n g u i s he s m e a s a h um a n bei n gf rom t he r e st o f t he worl d.I w i s h,ab ov e a ll,to be c ons ci ous o f mys e l f a s at hi n ki n g,w i ll i n g,ac t i v e bei n g,bea r i n g r e spons ibi l i ty f or hi s ch o ice s a n d ab l eto e xpl ai n t he m b y r efe r e n ce to hi s own idea s a n d purpos e s.I fee l f r ee to t hedeg r ee t ha t I be l ie v e t hi s to be tru e,a n d e nsl a v ed to t he deg r ee t ha t I a m m adeto r ea l i z e t ha t i t i s not.The f r eed om w hich c ons i sts i n bei n g on e’s own m a st e r,a n d t he f r eed omw hich c ons i sts i n not bei n g pr e v e nt ed f rom ch oos i n g a s I d o b y ot he r m e n,m a y,on t he face o f i t,s ee m c on ce pts a t no g r ea t lo gica l di st a n ce f rom each ot he r–nomor e t ha n n ega t i v e a n d pos i t i v e w a ys o f s a y i n g t he s a m e t hi n g.Ye t t he‘pos i t i v e’a n d‘n ega t i v e’not i ons o f f r eed om hi stor ica lly de v e lop ed i n di v e r ge ntdi r ec t i ons not a lw a ys b y lo gica lly r e put ab l e st e ps,unt i l,i n t he e n d,t he y ca m ei nto di r ec t c on f l ic t w i t h each ot he r.O n e w a y o f m aki n g t hi s c l ea r i s i n t e rms o f t he i n de p e n de nt mom e ntumw hich t he,i n i t ia lly p e r ha ps qu i t e ha rml e ss,m e t a p h or o f s e l f-m a st e ryac qu i r ed.‘I a m my own m a st e r’;‘I a m sl a v e to no m a n’;b ut m a y I not(a s,f or i nst a n ce,T.H.G r ee n i s a lw a ys s a y i n g)be a sl a v e to n a tur e?O r to my own‘un b r id l ed’p a ss i ons?A r e t he s e not so m a ny sp ecie s o f t he ide nt ica l ge nus‘sl a v e’–som e pol i t ica l or l ega l,ot he rs mor a l or sp i r i tu a l?Ha v e not m e n had t hee xp e r ie n ce of l ibe r a t i ng t he ms e lv e s f rom sp i r i tu a l sl a v e ry,or sl a v e ry to n a tur e,a n d d o t he y not i n t he c ours e o f i t bec om e a w a r e,on t he on e ha n d,o f a s e l fw hich d om i n a t e s,a n d,on t he ot he r,o f som e t hi n g i n t he m w hich i s b rou gh t tohee l?Thi s d om i n a nt s e l f i s t he n v a r i ously ide nt ified w i t h r ea son,w i t h my‘highe r n a tur e’,w i t h t he s e l f w hich ca l c ul a t e s a n d ai ms a t w ha t w i ll s a t i s f y i t i nt he lon g run,w i t h my‘r ea l’,or‘idea l’,or‘a utonomous’s e l f,or w i t h my s e l f‘a ti ts be st’;w hich i s t he n c ontr a st ed w i t h i rr a t i on a l i mpuls e,un c ontroll ed de s i r e s,my‘low e r’n a tur e,t he pursu i t o f i mm edia t e pl ea sur e s,my‘e mp i r ica l’or‘he t e ronomous’s e l f,sw e pt b y e v e ry g ust o f de s i r e a n d p a ss i on,n eedi n g to ber igid ly di s ci pl i n ed if i t i s e v e r to r i s e to t he f ull heigh t o f i ts‘r ea l’n a tur e.P r e s e ntly t he two s e lv e s m a y be r e pr e s e nt ed a s di v ided b y a n e v e n l a r ge r ga p:t he r ea l s e l f m a y be c on cei v ed a s som e t hi n g w ide r t ha n t he i n di v id u a l(a s t het e rm i s norm a lly un de rstoo d),a s a so cia l‘w h ol e’o f w hich t he i n di v id u a l i s a ne l e m e nt or a sp ec t:a tr ibe,a r ace,a ch ur ch,a st a t e,t he g r ea t so cie ty of t he l i v i n g161ARGUMENTS FOR FREEDOMa n d t he dead a n d t he y e t unb orn.Thi s e nt i ty i s t he n ide nt ified a s bei n g t he‘tru e’s e l f w hich,b y i mpos i n g i ts c oll ec t i v e,or‘or ga n ic’,s i n g l e w i ll upon i tsr eca l ci tr a nt‘m e m be rs’,achie v e s i ts own,a n d,t he r ef or e,t hei r,‘highe r’f r eed om.The p e r i ls o f us i n g or ga n ic m e t a p h ors to j ust if y t he c o e r ci on o f som e m e n b yot he rs i n or de r to r ai s e t he m to a‘highe r’l e v e l o f f r eed om ha v e o f t e n bee npo i nt ed out.B ut w ha t gi v e s su ch pl a us ibi l i ty a s i t ha s to t hi s ki n d o f l a n g u agei s t ha t w e r ec o g n i z e t ha t i t i s poss ib l e,a n d a t t i m e s j ust ifiab l e,to c o e r ce m e n i nt he n a m e o f som e g o a l(l e t us s a y,j ust ice or pu b l ic hea lt h)w hich t he y woul d,ift he y w e r e mor e e nl igh t e n ed,t he ms e lv e s pursu e,b ut d o not,beca us e t he y a r eb l i n d or ig nor a nt orc orrupt.Thi s r e n de rs i t ea sy f or m e to c on cei v e o f mys e l fa s c o e r ci n g ot he rs f or t hei r own s ake,i n t hei r,not my,i nt e r e st.I a m t he nc l ai m i n g t ha t I k now w ha t t he y truly n eed be tt e r t ha n t he y k now i t t he ms e lv e s.Wha t,a t most,t hi s e nt ai ls i s t ha t t he y woul d not r e s i st m e if t he y w e r e r a t i on a l,a n d a s w i s e a s I,a n d un de rstoo d t hei r i nt e r e sts a s I d o.B ut I m a y g o on to c l ai ma g oo d dea l mor e t ha n t hi s.I m a y dec l a r e t ha t t he y a r e ac tu a lly ai m i n g a t w ha ti n t hei r be n igh t ed st a t e t he y c ons ci ously r e s i st,beca us e t he r e e x i sts w i t hi nt he m a n o cc ult e nt i ty–t hei r l a t e nt r a t i on a l w i ll,or t hei r‘tru e’purpos e–a n dt ha t t hi s e nt i ty,a lt h ou gh i t i s be l ied b y a ll t ha t t he y ov e rtly fee l a n d d o a n d s a y,i s t hei r‘r ea l’s e l f,o f w hich t he poor e mp i r ica l s e l f i n sp ace a n d t i m e m a y k nownot hi n g or l i ttl e;a n d t ha t t hi s i nn e r sp i r i t i s t he only s e l f t ha t de s e rv e s to ha v ei ts w i s he s t ake n i nto acc ount.11O n ce I t ake t hi s v ie w,I a m i n a pos i t i on toig nor e t he ac tu a l w i s he s o f m e n or so cie t ie s,to b ully,oppr e ss,tortur e t he m i nt he n a m e,a n d on beha l f,o f t hei r‘r ea l’s e lv e s,i n t he s ec ur e k nowl edge t ha tw ha t e v e r i s t he tru e g o a l o f m a n(ha pp i n e ss,f ul fi lm e nt o f d uty,w i s d om,a j ustso cie ty,s e l f-f ul fi lm e nt)must be ide nt ica l w i t h hi s f r eed om–t he f r ee ch o ice o fhi s‘tru e’,a l bei t su b m e r ged a n d i n a rt ic ul a t e,s e l f.Thi s p a r ad ox ha s bee n o f t e n e xpos ed.I t i s on e t hi n g to s a y t ha t I k now w ha ti s g oo d f or X,w hi l e he hi ms e l f d o e s not a n d e v e n to ig nor e hi s w i s he s f or i ts–a n d hi s–s ake;a n d a v e ry diffe r e nt on e to s a y t ha t he ha s e o i pso ch os e n i t,noti n deed c ons ci ously,not a s he s ee ms i n e v e ry da yl ife,b ut i n hi s rol e a s a r a t i on a ls e l f w hich hi s e mp i r ica l s e l f m a y not k now–t he‘r ea l’s e l f w hich di s ce rns t heg oo d,a n d ca nnot he lp ch oos i n g i t on ce i t i s r e v ea l ed.Thi s monstrousi mp e rson a t i on,w hich c ons i sts i n e qu a t i n g w ha t X woul d ch oos e if he w e r esom e t hi n g he i s not,or a t l ea st not y e t,w i t h w ha t X ac tu a lly s eek s a n d ch oos e s,i s a t t he hea rt o f a ll pol i t ica l t he or ie s o f s e l f-r ea l i z a t i on.I t i s on e t hi n g to s a yt ha t I m a y be c o e r ced f or my own g oo d w hich I a m too b l i n d to s ee:t hi s m a y,ono cca s i on,be f or my be n efi t;i n deed i t m a y e nl a r ge t he s c op e o f my l ibe rty;i t i sa not he r to s a y t ha t if i t i s my g oo d,t he n I a m not bei n g c o e r ced,f or I ha v e w i ll edi t,w he t he r I k now t hi s or not,a n d a m f r ee–or‘truly’f r ee–e v e n w hi l e my poor 162。