Chapter 3 Lexicon
morphology练习部分问题详解
Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammaticalwords C. function words D. form words 2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB.free C.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB.four C. five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB.suffixes C. infixes D.stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectionalaffix C. infix D.back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB.back-formation C. insertion D. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB.clipping C. initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB.clipping C. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB.agree C. disagree D. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB.phoneme C. morpheme D. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way ofword-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations. III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with__________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root__________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largestpart of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to__________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a__________, and a word formed by compounding is calleda __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?（厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II（武汉大学，2004）I II(2) free(4) inflectionalI.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADB II.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFF III.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme 25. close, open 26.back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme 29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound root IV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective. V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4)d (5) b。
二语习得引论-读书笔记-chapter-3
Chapter 3. The linguistics of SLA Ⅰ . The nature of languagecharacteristics of languages主要研究成果 systematic socialword meaningpronunciation; spellingMorphology (word structure)Lexicon(vocabulary)Phonology (soundsystem)levels of a languageSyntax (grammar)grammatical category (part of speech)combination; idioms phonemesintonation patterns; tonessyllable structurerhythmic patterns (pauses and stops)morphemesprefixes and suffixesinflections that carry grammaticalinformation word orderagreement between sentence elements ways to form sentencesDiscourseways to connet sentences and organizeinformations across sentencesstructures for telling stories, etc scripts for interacting and eventssymbolicⅡ . Early approaches to SLA1. Contrastive Analysis (CA)1) . as a beginning of the survey:aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recent approaches. It introduced the influence of L1 on L2 (Chomsky)2) . CA: an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting andexplaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2)3) . influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism.4) . Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increase efficiency in L2teaching and testing.structuralist linguisticsthe surface forms of L1 and L2 systems phonology → morphology → syntax → lexion → bottom- updiscourseCAassumptionsbehaviorist psychologyLA essentially invoves habit formationstimulus- response- reinofrcement Llinguistic inputrespond habituate... transfer(S-R-R)practice makesperfect5). Process:Describing L1 and L2 at different levelAnalyzing comparable segment of the language for elements that may cause6). Assessment:Cannot explain the logical problem of language learning (how learners know more than they ' ve heard and been taught) Not always validated byevidence from actual learner errors.Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammarIts analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation2. Error analysis (EA)1) . EA: the first approach to the study of SLA which includes aninternal focus on learner 's creative ability to construct language. (based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors inL2)2) . CA → EAPredictions by CA not always correct; many real learner errors are nottransferred from L1Focus on surface-level forms and patterns → underlying rulesBehaviorism →mentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity) Teachingconcerns as motivation ↓3) . Procedures for analyzing learner errors:Collection of a sample of learner languageIdentification of errorsDescription of errorsExplanation of errorsEvaluation of errors4) . ShortcomingsAmbiguity in classificationLack of positive dataPotential for avoidance3. Interlanguage (IL)1) . IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of a learner ' slanguage as it moves toward the target L2.2) . Characteristics:SystematicDynamicVariableReduced system, both in form and function3) . Differences between SLA and L1 acquisition by childrenLanguage transfer from L1 to L2Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taughtStrategies of 2 nd language learningOvergeneralization of the target language linguistic materials4) . L1 as fossilization for L2 learners:Fossilization: the probability that they 'll cease their IL development in somerespects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2input and passage time.Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.4. Morpheme order studies1) . Refers to ：an important Q in the study of SLA, whether there is a naturalorder (or universal sequence) in the grammatical development of L2 learners.2) . Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base form of a word, togive it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.)3) . The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same.4) . The concept of natural order remains very important for understanding SLA.(both from linguistic and cognitive approaches)5. Monitor model1) . One of the last of the early approaches which has an internal focus in theMonitor Model.(Stephen Krashen)2) . It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a language acquisition device(LAD) (Chomsky used for children 's innate knowledge of language)3) . Krashen 's approach: 5 hypotheses6. Consensus:1) . What is being acquired in SLA is a“rule0governed ” languagesystems2) . How SLA take place involves creative mental processes.3) . Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than others relatesprimarily to the age of the learner.Ⅲ . Universal Grammar (UG)1. UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common.1) . Two important concepts linguistic competence (speaker-hearers 'underlying knowledge of language) needs to be accounted for LA such knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input. (the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument)2) . The nature of speaker-hearers ' competence in native language can be explained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with. 3) . The innate knowledge is in the language facultyLanguage faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.2. Principles and Parameters1) . With Chomsky ' s reconceptualization of UG in the Principles andParameters framework [often called the Government and Binding (GB)subconsciousinnate language acquisition deviceconsciousexemplified by theL2 learningwhat is "learned" is availableonly as a monitor acquire the rules of languagein a predictable order inputcomprehensiviblehypothesisinputenough understandableinput may not be processed if theaffective filter is "up"natral order hypothesisaffective filter hypothesismonitor hypothesis 5hypothesisacquisitionacquisition-learning hypothesislearningmodel] and the subsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there came a new idea about the acquisition process.2) . UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which are properties of all languages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters3) . What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UG that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input. 4) . How acquisition occurs for children: natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system5) . Why some learners are more successful:Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)Ⅳ . Functional approaches1. Functional approach1) . Based on: the framework of Functionalism2) . Characteristics of functional approaches to SLAstructural such as which element is the object or subject functionsuch as convey information or express emotioFocus on the use of language in real situations (performance) and underlying knowledge (competence)Assumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA requirecommunicative useConcern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used ininteraction; include aspects of communication beyond language2. Systemic linguistics (M.A.K.Halliday)1) . Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzing language in terms of theinterrelated systems of choices that are available forexpressing meaning.“ language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguisticfunctions ”2) . What language learners acquire: meaning potential3) . Process of acquisition:mastering certain basic functions of language developing a meaning potential for each4) . pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition: instrumental →regulatory → interactional → personal → heuristic → imagination →representational5) . linguistic structures: directly reflections of the functions that language serves;related to the social and personal needs3. Functional Typology1) . Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the world 's language2) . Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences among languages;to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or areuniversal in distribution.3) . Application: why some L2 constructions are more/less difficult than others forL2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer4) . important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specific feature oflanguage is marked or unmarked)5) . Markedness differential prediction for SLAIn SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones.6) . Compared with CA:Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structural (CA)to more abstract patterns, principles and constraints; the Markedness Differential Hypothesis 7) . implications:some aspects of some languages are more difficultwhy some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and 2 nd language (factors: perceptual salience, ease of cognitive processing, physical constraints, communicative needs)4. Function-to-form mapping1) . Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process of grammaticalization. 2) . Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed byshared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker. Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive process3) . Pragmatic mode: a style of expressing meaning which relies more on context.Syntactic mode: a style which relies more on formal grammatical elementtopic- comment → subject -predict structure loose conjunction → tight subordinationslow rate of delivery → fast rate of delivery word order governed by pragmatic principle of old information then new information → word order used to signal semantic case functionsroughly one-to-one ratio of verbs → nouns in discourse toa larger ratio of nouns over verbs4) . According to function-to-mapping approach, LAimportantly involves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions.5. Information organization1). Focus on: utterance structure (the way learners put their words together.)2). Includes:describing the structures of interlanguage (learner varieties)discovering what organizational principles guide learners ' production atIn all languages: to express functions (such as time)reliance on grammatical forms ↑ liance on context and lexical words ↓no use of grammatical morphology↓elavorate useofgrammatical morphologyvarious stages of developmentanalyzing how these principles interact with one another.3) . European Science Foundation (ESF) projectdevelopmental levels: in this study, no matter what their L1 andL2, the learners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in their interlanguage.organizing principles:* there is a limited set of principles (phrasal constraints; semanticconstraints; pragmatic constraints) which learners make use of fororganizing information.* Individual variation: how the principles apply in their L1 and influence the interlanguage use.。
语言学教程Chapter 3练习题
Chapter 3：LexiconI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are calledm___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.。
morphology练习部分答案word文本
Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammaticalwords C. function words D. form words 2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB.free C.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB.four C. five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB.suffixes C. infixes D.stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectionalaffix C. infix D.back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB.back-formation C. insertion D. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB.clipping C. initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB.clipping C. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB.agree C. disagree D. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB.phoneme C. morpheme D. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way ofword-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations. III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with__________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root__________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largestpart of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to__________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a__________, and a word formed by compounding is calleda __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word。
英语语言学第三章
c. word can be used independently: d. word is relatively stable and uninterruptible
un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5 morpheme word un+gentle+man+li+ness Over-5-morpheme word
anti +dis + establish +ment +ari +an+ ism Industr(y)+ial+i+za+tion
2.2 Types of morphemes
1.3 Classification of word
a. Variable vs. invariable words Variable words: words that have series of
grammatically different forms.
Eg. Follow follows follois word A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
(1) Morphemes
Free morphemes Bound morphemes
Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves
胡壮麟《语言学教程》学习辅导
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。
后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。
结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。
不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛（）外语版的相关帖子。
本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。
整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。
在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。
也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。
需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。
冰暖茶2006年11月前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon (14)Chapter 4 Syntax (21)Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind (29)Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society (35)Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer (49)Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (53)Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (59)第二部分重点章节测试题 (67)Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology (70)Test Three Morphology (73)Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics (79)Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (88)第三部分测试题参考答案 (91)参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The ―yo-he-ho‖ theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word ―book‖ to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression ―the word book‖ to talk about the sign ―b-o-o-k‖ itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronicdescription is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, but because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. –icywarmtea]Being etic means researcher s’making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, orcompletely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certainparts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place ofarticulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and thensuddenly releasing it. In English, [☐ ♌ ♦ ♎ ♑] are stops and[❍ ⏹ ☠] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape withfriction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, closetogether but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐ ❆ ♦ ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without thevocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this classof sounds includes [♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from thelungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the onlylateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the undersideof the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projectionof the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as ―BBC English‖ or ―Oxford English‖ because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees arerecognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have beennasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐], CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 – CV16.[I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. –icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map,it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of thedifferent forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak /☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in the word like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are both allophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless.This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.End of Chapter 2Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units.It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word ―write‖ is the lexeme of ―write, writes, wrote, writing and written.‖2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit thatcannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word ―boxes‖ has two morphemes: ―box‖ and ―es,‖ neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality ―-s‖makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positionalmobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis +appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as ―the maximum free form‖ and word ―the minimum free form,‖ the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, acomplete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow –follows –following –followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have noinflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguisticanalysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker ―to,‖ the negative marker ―not,‖ and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which。
胡壮麟语言学第三章课件
Chapter 3 Lexicon
15
3.1.3 Classification of words
definitions: word: the minimum free form of a language closed-class: one whose membership is fixed or limited (no new members can be added.) open-class: one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited (new members can be added.) word class: part of speech
Chapter 3 Lexicon 17
3.1.3 Classification of words Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.
In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word", the term LEXEME is postulated（假定）as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, "write" and "fat" are the lexemes of the two sets of words in ex. 3-3 respectively.
Chapter 3(me)词汇
• Old English is highly inflected language. Words were full of endings. ME were leveled endings and modern English are lost endings.
•
Old
Middle rn
– a. Early modern English period (15001700)
– b. Late modern English period (1700 to date)
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• The beginning of Old English, which had 50.000 to 60.000 words, is marked by the arrival of the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. People generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English is a highly inflected language. In this period, many latin words and Scandinavian words came into the English language.
10
English is classified as a Germanic language. To be more exact, English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.
语言学第三章笔记和习题
Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a Ianguage. It is synonymous with “vocabulary ”Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,., the an alysis and creati on of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in Ianguage. The features of wordWordis meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and unin terruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the in ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total nu mber of words stored in the brain is called the lexic on. _________Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of lin guistics, whereas lexic on is a comp onent of Ian guage in stead of a branch of lin guistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a Ian guage to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, . beatnik(a membeiof the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intern et, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chin ese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles,prepositi on and pronouns.Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage is called a morpheme.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may con sist of one morpheme or more morphemes,.1- morpheme 2- m orpheme 3- m orpheme 4- m orpheme 5- m orpheme 7-morpheme boy, desireboy+ish, desir(e)+bleboy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+itygen tle+ma n+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity un+ge ntle+ma n+li+ness an ti+dis+establish+me nt+ari+a n+ismMorph: whe n people wish to dist in guish the sound of a morpheme from the en tire morpheme, they may sued the term. It is the pho netic realizati on of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represe nted by differe nt forms, called allomorphs. It is the phon etic varia nt of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as “ dog, bark, cat ” ,etc. In otherin sta nces, there may be some variati on, that is, a morphememay have alter nate shapes or ph on etic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morphememaybe represented by:map----maps_ [s]dog----dogs _[z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen_[ n]tooth----teethsheep——sheep_Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur on ly before others,.un-, dis, an ti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others,.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may con stitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dan ce, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not sta nd by themselves, such as -s in dogs , al in national , dis - in disclose , ed in “recorded ” , etc.Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are n ever used in depe nden tly in speech and writ ing. They are alwaysattached to free morphemesto form new words. These morphemesare called bound morphemes. The distinction between a free morphemesand a bound morphemeis whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemesare the roots of words, while bound morphemesare the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivatio nal morpheme & in flect ional morphem eDerivati onal morphemes---- the morphemes which cha nge the category, or grammatical class of words, . modern---moder ni ze, length---len gthe n, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemeswhich are for the most part purely grammatical markers,sig nifying such con cepts as ten se, nu mber, case and so on; they n ever cha nge their syn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meanin g,.a) number: tables apples cars _ _b) pers on, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talkedc) case: Joh n/John 'sInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivati onal morphemes are bound morphemes added to exist ing forms to con struct new words.En glish affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some Ian guages have in fixes, bound morphemes which are in serted into other morphemes.Noun+ -' s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3 rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wordIn flecti onal morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivati onal + in flect ionalCon clusi on: classificati on of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesIn flexi onalDerivati on al: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rulesThe rules that govern the formation of words, . the “ un- + ---- ” rule.un fair un thi nkable un acceptable …Compo unding is ano ther way to form new words,.Ian dlady rain bow un dertake …The process of putt ing affixes to existi ng forms to create new words is called derivati on Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compo undsNoun compo undsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) wi ndmill (N+N)Verb compo undsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compo undsma neat ing (N+Vi ng) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Prepositi on compo undsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compo undsWhenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwill be in this category, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue- black …When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compo un d, . head- stro ng, pickpocket …Compo un dsiave differe nt stress patter ns from the non-compo un dedword seque nee, . red coat, gree n house…The meaning of a compo und is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formati on of new words1. 1 nflectio n: it is the mani festatio n of grammatical relati on ships through the additi on of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivati onDerivation forms a word by addi ng an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend , we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of addi ng more tha n one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. ________ Derivati on is also con stra ined by pho no logical factors.Some En glish suffixes also cha nge the word stress.3. CompoundingCompounding is ano ther com mon way to form words. It is the comb in ati on of free morphemes.The majority of En glish compo un dsare the comb in ati on of words from the three classes -nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.In compo un ds, the rightmost morpheme determ ines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compo unds is not always the sum of meaning of the comp onen ts.4. Conv ersi on (inven ti on)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conv ersi on is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipp ing (abbreviati ons) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shorte ns a polysyllabic word by delet ing one or more syllables.Clipped words are in itially used in spoke n En glish on in formal occasi ons.Someclipped words have becomewidely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus) , vet (veterinarian) , gym (gymnasium), fridge(refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.6. BlendingBlending is a process that creates newwords by putting together non-morphemic parts of existi ng words. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morni ng, replaci ng both breakfast and lun ch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also aninteresting word in the textbook for junior middle school students —“ plike ” (a kind of mach ine that is like both a pla ne and a bike).7. Back-formati onBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television . Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix —sion in English indicating nouns. Then peopleconsider the - sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verbtelevise .Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acro nyms can be read as a word and are usually Ion ger tha n abbreviati ons, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formatio n is com mon in n ames of orga ni zati ons and scie ntific termi no logy.Eponyms are words that origi nate from proper n ames of in dividuals or places. For example, the word san dwich is a comm onnoun orig in at ing from the fourth Earl of San dwich, who put his foodbetwee n two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambli ng.10. Coi nageCoin age is a process of inventing words not based on exist ing morphemes.This way of word formatio n is especially com mon in cases where in dustry requiresa word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola .11. Borrowing: English in its development has managedto widen its vocabulary by Borrowingwords from other Ianguages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other Ianguages have all played anactive role in this process, such as “atom, electricity ” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin,“violin, pizza ” from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3 : MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:I. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are the smallest meanin gful un its of Ian guage.3. Just as a phon eme is the basic unit in the study of phono logy, so is a morpheme the basic unitin the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that gover n which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed accordi ng to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.II. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:11. M ___ is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.12. The affix “- ish ” in the word boyish conveys a g ______ meaning.13. B __________ m orphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb inedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d _________ affixes.15. D ______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s _____ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it maycase change its part of speech.17. C ________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d _____________ can be viewed as the addition of affixesto stems to form new words.20. A s _____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivationalaffix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme“vision ” in the common word “television ” is a(n) ___________ .A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _______________________ .A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compoundsis generally determined by the part of speech of _______________ .A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.A. SyntaxC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______ .A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that __________ .A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. __ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _______ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s ” in the word “books ” is ____________ .A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root43.What are the main features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3IV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemesare the morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independentlybut have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixesmanifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to anexisting form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but theyusually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:IV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 33. derivational morphology 35. free morpheme 37. root 39. prefix 41. derivation V. Answer the following questions:32. inflectional morphology 34. morpheme 36. bound morpheme 38. affix 40. suffix 42. Compounding Morphology43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book- ” in the word “bookish ”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish ” in “bookish ”. Boundmorphemescan be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in th e word“generate ”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “ -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are ad ded to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform ”. Derivational affixes can also be dividedinto prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as word “dislike ”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “friendless“dis- ” in the -less ” in the word。
胡壮麟语言学课件
2. What is this course about?Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsChapter 3 LexiconChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 MeaningChapter 6 Language and cognitionChapter 7 Language, Culture, and SocietyChapter 8 Language in useChapter 9 language and literatureChapter 10 language and computerChapter 11 linguistics and foreign language teachingChapter 12 Theories and schools of modern linguistics1. languageDefinitionFeaturesFunctions1) Definition:Sapir, 1921: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.(语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造出来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。
）Hall, 1968: Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." （语言是人们通过惯用的任意性的口头-听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。
countess in crimson第三章
countess in crimson第三章“Countess in Crimson”is a thrilling novel written by the talented author,Alexa Aston.In the third chapter of the book,we are introduced to the protagonist,Lady Diana,as she navigates the challenges of her aristocratic life in 19th century England.The chapter opens with Lady Diana attending a lavish ball at the Duke of Montrose's estate.Dressed in a stunning crimson gown,she stands out among the other guests and catches the eye of the handsome and enigmatic Lord Sinclair. As the evening unfolds,Lady Diana finds herself drawn to Lord Sinclair,despite the warnings she has heard about his notorious reputation.Amidst the glittering ballroom and whispered gossip,Lady Diana's thoughts are consumed by the mysterious Lord Sinclair.She is both intrigued and wary of his advances,knowing that her reputation and future are at stake.As the night progresses,she finds herself engaged in a dance with Lord Sinclair,their chemistry undeniable as they move together in perfect harmony.As the chapter comes to a close,Lady Diana is left with conflicting emotions.She is both exhilarated by her encounter with Lord Sinclair and fearful of the consequences it may bring.Her inner turmoil sets the stage for the drama and romance that will unfold in the subsequent chapters of“Countess in Crimson”.In conclusion,the third chapter of“Countess in Crimson”captivates readers with its vivid descriptions and compelling dy Diana's struggles and desires are portrayed with depth and emotion,drawing readers into her world of privilege and passion.Alexa Aston has crafted a captivating story that will undoubtedly keep readerseagerly turning the pages to discover what lies ahead for Lady Diana and Lord Sinclair.Overall,the third chapter of“Countess in Crimson”sets the stage for an enthralling tale of love,intrigue,and sacrifice,and leaves readers eagerly anticipating the twists and turns that await them in the rest of the novel.。
语言学教程第三章练习1
语言学教程第三章练习1Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1 Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. AllomorphII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false.(10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An initialism is pronounced letter by letter, while an acronym is pronounced as a word22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with vocabulary.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid, hyphenated and open24. All words may be said to contain a root morpheme.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to close class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to open class.26. Back-formation is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27.Conversion is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the morpheme level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a derivative, and a word formed by compounding is called a compound.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: affix and bound root.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological rule31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective. V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the Englishlanguage? What are they?36.What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN III II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculation。
语言学--3.morphology2
Derivational
more productive—form new wor ds
Changes meaning or part of speec h of the stem.( like--dislike, sleep Indicates syntactic relations betw —asleep) een different words in a sentence. ( grammatical meaning) Indicates semantic relations with Occurs with all members of som e large class of morphemes Occurs at margins of words , in most cases suffixes. (radio—radi os) in the word. (specific lexical meaning，e.g., u n-) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes Occurs before any inflectional su ffixes added, prefixes/suffixes
Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes
which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest ; John’s
胡壮麟 语言学教程修订版 课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter (3)
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential forrearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituentsof sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is oneallowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”thelatter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. V ariable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those wordssuch as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives andmany adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here aresome of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negativemarker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “getby,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of theirunique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguiststoday tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements fordifferent elements in a sentence. For example, in the followingconversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the nounacting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference thenoun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses:predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 T ypes of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix isthe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added toanother morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes towhich an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without totalloss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes areremoved. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism,what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may befree or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence formslept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that astem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may containa root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes andderivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with thefollowing ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammaticalmeaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serveto produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivationalaffixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attachto, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or mightnot, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, andthat between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguisticfactors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” isdetermined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivationalaffixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talkabout the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of beingclever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are alwaysword final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational affixes can beprefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound)and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded,wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbalcompound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participantof the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formedby V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V+ A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original wordeither changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch oflinguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonologicalfactors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, thegrammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also calledmorphonology or morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of theinfluence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or“contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one soundsegment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers ortheir brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of thesecond word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part orcutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in thelanguage.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic andother languages have all played an active role in this process.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur inutterances at the expense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked andaccepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous”assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understoodin its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing to do withgeneralization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formationis also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from theinfluence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.。
68-习题作业-Exercises in Chapter 3(Lexicon)
the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. （ ）
are attached. （ ）
25. Bound morphemes can be used independently under certain circumstance. （ ） 26. Inflectional morphemes can always change the classes of the words to which they
II .Fill in each of the following blanks with a proper word. 11.“Gentle” is the ___________ of the word “gentlemanliness. 12.Some morphemes like “water”, “desire”, “work”, “able” and “like” constitute
morphemes. （ ）
23. All words have morphs but not necessarily allomorphs. （ ） 24. Derivational morphemes can never change the class of the words to which they
D. clipped words
6. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is .
03Chapter_3_lexicon
Closed-class vs. Open-class Words: Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries. Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
1.3 Classification of words
Variable vs. Invariable Words: Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote,
written; cat, cats.
Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.
Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es. Inflection: grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc. Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly > friendly.
linguistics语言学
What is linguistics? the science of language the scientific study of language more design features cultural transmission mutual interchangeability
Second, there are other facts that are puzzling if language is not innate. Children learn their mother tongue in very different environments. But they follow more or less the same stages in acquisition: the babbling stage, nonsense word stage, holophrastic stage, two-word utterance, developing grammar, nearadult grammar, and full competence.
Displacement
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement gives human the power to handle generalizations and abstraction. Displacement make it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms. e.g. Non-things: beauty and truth
语言学教程Chapter 3. Lexicon
2) grammatical words and lexical words
• grammatical words : words mainly working for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. • lexical words: words mainly working for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. • Lexical words carry the main content of a language while grammatical ones serve to link together different content parts. • Lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones as function words.
3.2.1 morpheme and morphology
• Definition of morpheme • Definition or morphology
3.2.2 types of morphemes
• (1) free morpheme and bound morpheme • Free morphemes: they can make up words by themselves. All mono-morphemic words ( words consisting of only one morpheme) are free morphemes. • Some poly-morphemic words are made up of two free morphemes, so they are free morphemes, too. Such poly-morphemic words are called compounds. • Morphemes which must appear with at least another morpheme are named as bound morphemes.
语言学--3.Lexicon
语言学教程（第三版）
Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology
1
黄石理工学院
外国语学院《语言学教程》
李金妹制作
Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology
Teaching objectives: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methods Teaching Focus: definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methods Time Allocation: Morpheme 30 minutes Word formation 30 minutes Teaching Methods & Strategies: teacher presentation and class discussion
9
Linguistics
Made by LI Jinmei
(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词) • The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns （代词）; • the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..
语言学 chapter 3 总结
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is Word?As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”reference:指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）Sense:词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）(1)A physical definable unitLanguage is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen asa set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.For example: It is wonderful.Phonological: /it is wandәful/O rthographic: it’s wonderful(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written(3) A grammatical unitThe grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them. ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme 3.1.2 Identification of words(1) Stability:A word can’t be rearranged, but a se ntence can.Word: nothingness **nessnothing(F)Sentence: a. John is a clever boyb. A clever boy John is(2) Relative uninterruptibility:A word can’t be separates or insertedwith other elements, but a sentence can.Word: disappointment *dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, byitself, as a complete utterance.Expression: ---Is Jane coming this evening?--- PossiblyException: ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog isbarking ”----- A3.1.3 Classification of Word(1) Variable and invariable wordsWord including①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariable words (not having inflective changes.E.g. since, when, hello)(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly workfor constructing group, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such asconj., prep, articles, pron..②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work forreferring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.(3) Closed- class and opened-class words①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, thiskind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such aspronouns, prep, articles and others.②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle orunlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)(4) Word class⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection, and article.⑵other word classes:①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twiceb. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, yourc. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)3.2 The Formation of Word3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. Itstudies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.3.2.2 Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis,-ed)(2) Root, affix, and stem①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyedwithout destroying its meaning(NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive inconceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.c. I t can be both free morpheme and bound morpheme.Child and child- in children))②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), including prefix(para-, mini-, un-,) , suffix(-ise, -tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. For example:a.friend- in friends shows that a stem may be the same as a rootb.friendship- in friendships indicates that a stem may contain a rootand one, or more than one, derivational affix.3) Inflective affix and derivational affixThe differences between inflective affix and derivational affix:①.inflective affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes;②.inflective affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,while derivational affixes often change the lexical lexical meaning;③.inflective affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final(e.g.-s). But derivational affixes can both be prefixes(e.g. sub-, de-) andsuffixes(e.g. -er, -able )3.2.3 Inflection and word formationTo be more specific, there are two fields that morphology is concerned with: (ⅰ).The study of inflections( also called as INFLECTIONA MORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ). The study of word formation( often referred to as LEICAL or DERIV ATIONAL MORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by addinginflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect andcase; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical classof the stem(to which they are attached) will not change. Forexample,(a)number: table/tables(b)person: finiteness and aspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case: boy/boy’s⑵Word formationWord-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how words are formed.Two sub-types: a. the compositional type(COMPOUND)b. the derivational type(DEROV ATION)ⅰ、Compound⑴(a)NOUN COMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g. day+brea k→daybreak(b)VERB COMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g. lip+rea d→lipread(c)ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g. dut y+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITION COMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g. in+t o→into⑵two kinds of compound: (a)endocentric compound(self-control)(b)exocentric compound(breakthrough)⑶the ways of written(a) as a single word(wardrobe, birdseed, bodyguard)(b)joined with a hyphen”-”(rest-room, wedding-ring)(c)with ordinary space between two words(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes, and make the word class of the original word either changed (length--lengthen)or unchanged (non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4 Sememe & Morpheme and Phoneme & Morpheme⑴Sememe vs. morphemeSememe is the smallest component of meaning, while morpheme is smallest unit of meaning①one morpheme vs. one sememe②one morpheme vs. more than one sememe③one sememe vs. more than one morpheme④morphemes that have no specific sememe⑤function changes in both sememe and moepheme without morphemechange⑵Morpheme vs. phoneme①a single phoneme vs. a single morpheme②a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme③allomorph④morphemic conditionsa. phonological conditionedb. morphonologically conditioned3.3 Lexical Change3.3.1 Lexical change proper⑴Invention: Coke, Nylon, granola⑵Blending: transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor. digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnother sort of blending is called FUSION, such as rippe(ripple+shuffle), stample(trample+stample), and spinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3) Abbreviatiom(also called CLIPPING)缩写词e.g. advertisemen t→adbicylc e→bike(4) Acronym(缩略词)e.g. CI A→Central Intelligence Agency(5) Back-formation: editor---edit(6) Analogical creation: work→wrough t→worked; sla y→sle w→slayed(7)Borrowing: a Loanwords: borrow both form and meaning(au pair fromFrench);b .Loanblend: borrow the meaning, the form isblended(china-town);c Loanshift: meaning is borrowed and the form isnative(bridge); loan translation(翻译借词):：black humor 3.3.2 Morph-Syntactical Change(词素句法变化)(1) Morphological change: third person; plural form, possessive case(2) Syntactical changes:--Split infinitive:e.g.. I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it--Postponed Preposition:e.g.The person is impossible to work with--Objective case of relative pronoune.g. The girl who(m) he talked about is a violinist3.3.3 Semantic change(1) Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from itsoriginally specific sense to a relatively general one.e.g. “holiday”→”holy day” in religious Englis h→”a day for rest”(2) Narrowing is contrary to broadening: the original meaning of a word canbe narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.e.g. meat→“food”→the edible flesh of mammals.(3) Meaning shift here understood in its narrow sense, that is, the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.e.g. “bead”→“the prayer bead”→“small, ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood”(4) class shift: By changing the word class one can change the meaning of aword from a concrete or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIV ATION, or CONVERSIONe.g. hog→N(a pig)→V(to take and keep (all of something) foroneself )(5) folk stymology(民俗词源学) refers to the change of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.e.g. Spanish cucaracha changed into English cokroach3.3.4 Phonological change(1) loss(省音)：temperature /’tempәrәt ә/----/’temprәt /(2) Addition(增音)：a(n) article(3) Metathesis(换位)：is a process involving a change in the sequence ofsound.e.g. They taxed him with his failures. (accused)They took him to task for his failures. ( scolded)(4) Assimilation: 同化cap----can3.3.5 Orthographic changea. The same day went Iesus(sun)out of the house, and sate by theseaside.b. And when the Sunne (sun) was up, they were scorched。
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Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?♦According to Leonard Bloomfield‟s point of view:♦A word is a minimum free form, or the smallest form that may appear in isolation.2. Modern Linguistics:♦A word is the smallest of the linguistic unit which can occur on its own in speech or writing. ♦This criterion is difficult to be applied consistently. For example, can …the‟ occur on its own? Is …can’t‟ one word or two?♦3.1.1Four senses of …word‟♦Word – 1) form pronunciation♦spelling♦2) meaning♦3) function♦1) a minimal free form of a language♦A word is a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper between two blanks.♦2) a sound unity♦A word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds between two pauses.♦3) a unit of meaning♦4) a form that can function alone in a sentence♦The hierarchical rank scale of the grammar:♦Sentence♦clause♦Phrase♦word♦morpheme♦Definition :♦A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.♦Question:Are words the smallest meaningful units?♦3.1.2 Sound and meaning♦A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world. Then can we say that the connection between the word and the thing it refers to is intrinsic?♦No. The connection is almost always …arbitrary‟, which means that there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing andidea itself.♦A dog is called a dog not because the sound ant the three letters that make up the word just suggest the animal.♦3.1.3 word and lexeme♦Lexeme – the smallest unit in the meaning system (lexical item) of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller unit. 可以从其它类似单位中区别出来的最小语义单位。
♦Lexeme is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. (cf. P.56)♦3.1.4 Characteristics of word♦1) stability♦Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.♦Chairman *manchair♦2) relative uninterruptibility♦New elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word.♦3) a minimum free form♦A word is the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.♦This view was first proposed by Bloomfield, but it was questioned by some linguists. (P. 58) ♦3.1.5 Classification of word♦According to the variability, meaning, and finiteness, words can be classified as follows:♦1) variable and invariable words (variability)♦V ariable words are words which undergo ordered and regular series of grammatical difference while at the same time part of the word remaining relatively constant. (cf. p. 58) ♦Invariable words refer to those words which do not have inflective endings.♦2) lexical/content and grammatical/function words (meaning)♦Content words are words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and which have meaning (lexical meaning) when the words are used alone. They are usually nouns, main verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.♦Function words are words which have little meaning on their own, but which show grammatical relationships in and between sentences (grammatical meaning). They are usually articles, conjunctions, prepositions, etc.♦3) Open-class and closed-class words (finiteness)♦The open-class refers to a group of words which contains an unlimited number of items. It is just like the content words.♦Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularlyadded. It is just like the function words. But sometimes it is hard to define it. (cf. p. 59)♦3.1.6 New categories♦1) particles –infinitive marker …to‟, the negative marker …not‟, and the subordinate units in phrasa l verbs, such as …get by‟, …do up‟, …look back‟, etc.♦2) auxiliaries♦Auxiliaries include modal auxiliaries and link verbs which have unique properties of their own and which differ from the ordinary verbs.♦Cf examples on P. 60.♦3) pro-form♦It refers to items which substitute for other items or constructions in a sentence.♦Pro-adjective Y ou pen is red. So is mine.♦Pro-verb He knows English better than I did.♦Pro-adverb He hopes he‟ll win and I hope so too.♦Pro-locative Jame‟s hiding there, behind and door.♦4) determiners♦It refers to those words which are used before the noun (including its pre-modifiers like adjectives) acting as head of a nominal group, and which determine the kind of reference the nominal group has. For example,♦A) articles: a, an, the♦B) demonstratives: this, that♦C) possessives: her my♦D) quantifiers: some, many♦E) numerals: first, three♦Three sub-classes according to Quirk:♦a) predeterminers: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, one-third, etc♦b) central determiners: a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, no, either, my, etc.♦c) postdeterminers: cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, general ordinals and other quantifiers (cf. p. 61)♦The order is pre + central + post-determiners. Within each sub-class, the members are usually exclusive of each other with the exception of numerals. (cf. p. 61)3.2 The Development of English Words♦3.2.1 The Indo-European language family♦It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. The pre-historicIndo-European parent language is thought to be a highly inflected language.♦English belongs to the Germanic family, which also contains German, Dutch, Flemish (佛兰芒语), and the four Northern European languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, and Swedish (which is also known as Scandinavian languages).♦3.2.2 A historical overview of English♦1) Old English (450 - 1150)♦a) German tribes – Angles, Saxons, and Jutes♦England (the land of Angles)♦b) 6th C, the introduction of Christianity♦c) 9th C, Norwegian and Danish vikings♦d) a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words and highly inflected. Old English is called a synthetic language (a language in which the form of a word changes to show a change in meaning or grammatical function.)♦2) Middle English (1150 - 1500)♦a) 1066, Norman invasion♦b) Norman French (诺曼法语) became the polite speech. The native tongue was a despised language.♦c) the end of 13th C, English gradually came back into the schools, law courts, and government and regained social status.♦d) trade with the low countries (Holland)♦3) Modern English (1500 – up to now)♦a) Renaissance (Latin and Greek)♦b) Bourgeois Revolution and Industrial Revolution, English borrowed many words from most major languages of the world.♦c) an analytic language (a language in which word forms do not change, and in whic h grammatical functions are shown by word order and the use of function words.)3.3 The Formation of Word♦3.3.1 Morpheme and Morphology♦1. Morpheme♦A word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning.♦But structurally a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Eg., internationalization♦internationalization♦Inter-, nation-, -al, -iz(e), -ation♦Each constituent in the word has meaning of its own. These fragments cannot be further divided, otherwise, they would not make any sense.♦Morpheme –the smallest meaningful unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. (P.61)♦For example:♦Kind – *kin + -d♦expression – grammatical level♦content – semantic level♦Morphemes may only have grammatical functions, for example, the “-s” in “She talks” is a grammatical morpheme (a third-person singular present tense form).A morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit which is not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.♦Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in a language.♦A morpheme is “the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.” (Crystal, 1985)♦Question: What is the relation between morpheme and word?♦2. Morphology♦Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. For example,♦purify = pur(e) + -ify♦Morphological rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective, thus the creation of simplify, amplify, electrify, falsify.♦Morphology – the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs) and the way they combine in word formation.♦Morphology –the study of inflections (inflectional morphology) and the study of word-formation (derivational morphology).♦3.3.2 Types of morphemes♦1. Free morphemes – those that may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves.♦All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. For example, bird, chair, book, boy, girl, etc.♦Those poly-morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds, such as blackboard, blackboard, babysit, sunflower, moonwalk.♦2. Bound morphemes –those that must appear with at least another morpheme, that is, they cannot stand alone. For example, in the word internationalization only the morpheme nation is a free morpheme, the other morphemes inter-, -al, -iz(e), -ation are all bound.♦3. Root and affixes♦Poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.♦1) root – the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. For example, the root “nation” in internationalization .♦All words contain a root morpheme.♦A root may further be analyzed into free root and bound root.♦i) free root – those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. (The number is unlimited in English.) Free roots are free morphemes.♦ii) bound root –those that cannot stand alone but need to appear with at least another morpheme. (In English, they are either Latin or Greek. The number is relatively few. ) For example:♦-ceive in receive, perceive, conceive;♦-mit in permit, commit, submit;♦-tain in contain, retain, maintain;♦-cur in occur, recur, incur♦iii) A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.♦“Sleep” and “child” are free roots. Whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, i.e. slept, and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound.2) affixes –forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.词缀是附着于词而对意义或功能作修饰的形式。