欧洲文化入门复习重点

Introduction
1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.
2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.
The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.
Division One：Greek Culture and Roman Culture
1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens Sparta.
2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour.
3、Ancient Greece’s epics was created by Homer.
4、The Home r’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.
5、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.
6、Three masters in tragedy三大悲剧大师
①Aeschylus
Prometheus Bound —→Shelly Prometheus Unbound
②Sophocles
Oedipus the King —→ Freud’s “the Oedipus complex” (恋母情结)
—→ David Herbert Lawrence’s Sons and lovers
③Euripides
A．Trojan Women
B．He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)
C．Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece，to be specific, Euripides.
7、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes.
Aristophanes writes about nature.
8、History (Historical writing)
“Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war (between Greeks and Persians)
“t he greatest historian that ever lived.” —→ Thucydides —→ war (between Sparta and Athens) 9、①Euclid’s Elements解析几何
It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.
②Archimedes
His work laid basis for not only geometry几何学,but also arithmetic算术, mechanics机械, and hydrostatics.流体静力学
“Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world”.（Archimedes）
10、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (罗马征服希腊的标志)
From 146 B.C., Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire, and Greek that of the eastern half.
Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.
11、The dividing range in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.
12、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.
13、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato’s republic.
14、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed
by the Roman legions(罗马军团)
15、In the Roman history, there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was known as
Pax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)
16、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed
by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana
17、The Roman Law protected the rights of plebeians (平民).
18、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.
19、After 395,the empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and West.
20、Cicero西赛罗
his legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的
an enormous influence on the development of European prose.
21、Virgil: Aeneid 阿尼德
22、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.
The world’s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所
23、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式
24、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式
25. Many of Plato’s ideas were later absorbed into Christian thought.
How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?
(1)、Three founders
1、Pythagoras
①All things were numbers.
②Scientific mathematics.
③Theory of proportion.比例的理论
2、Heracleitue
①Fire is the primary elements of the universe.火是万物之源
②The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一
3、Democritus
①the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者
②materialism.唯物主义
(2)、Three thinkers
1、Socrates
①He hadn’t works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.
②The dialectical method was established by Socrates.
2、Plato
①The Academy is the first school in the world, it was established by Plato.
②He has four works. Dialogues, Apology, Symposium and Republic.
3、Aristotle
①The Lyceum is the second school in the world, it was established by Aristotle.
②Aristotle is a humanist.
(2)、Five contending schools
1、The Sophists诡辩派
①Under the leadership of Protagoras.
②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论
③His doctrine is “man is the measure of all things”.
2、The Cynics犬儒派
①Under the leadership of Diogenes.
②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.
③He proclaimed his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.
3、The Sceptics置疑学派
①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.
②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable, and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.
4、The Epicureans享乐派
①Under the leadership of Epicurus.
②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual enjoyment.
Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.
Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.
5、The Stoics斯多哥派
①Under the leadership of Zeno.
②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.
One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.
He developed into Stoics’ duty.
He was also a materialist.
What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)？
1、For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.
2、For another, he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world
3、Aristotle thought happiness was men’s aim in life，but not happiness in the vulgar sense, but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation.
What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development?
There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere. Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.
1、Spirit of innovation创新精神The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.
2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.
3、Lasting effect持续的影响①Countless writers have quoted, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect. ②In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn. ③In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.
Division Two：The Bible and Christianity
1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.
2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture: Judaism and Christianity.
3、The Jewish tradition, which gave birth to Christianity. (犹太教是基督教的前身)
Both originated in Palestine, which was known as Canaan.
4、The ancestors of the Jews — the Hebrews.
5、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.
6、The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.
7、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.
8、The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.
9、The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.
10、The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch.摩西五经
11、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.
12、Noah’s Ark was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.
13、The content of historical Books: 1200B.C. 586 B.C.
Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C., till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.
14、The History Books
① The development of system of landed nobles.
② The development of monarchy. 君主专制
③ Establishment of the two Kingdoms. 两大王国的初步形成
④ The settlement in the highlands
⑤ Age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon.
15、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.
16、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew (马修福音书)
17、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.
What difference between Christianity and the other religions?
Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.
1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.
2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life. (加尔文主义也有这样的观点)
What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?
1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.
2、Miltion’s Paradise Lost , Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden.
Division Three：The Middle Ages
1、the Middle ages
In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.
The middle ages is so called because it was the transitional period(过渡时期) between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century.
2、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭
3、Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”,
a grant of land.
4、5、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.
6、The word “catholic” meant “universal”.(广泛的，无处不在的)
7、St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)
8、Augustine —→ “Confession” and “The City of God”
9、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)
10、Crusades went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades.
11、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)
By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.
12、Carolingian Renaissance
Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
13、National Epics(民族史诗运动)
The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.
14、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点：① power of observation (观察)
② piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③ sense of humour ④ warm humanity (温暖的人性)
15、Gothic
① The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.
② It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.
③ The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式）
16、The Canterbury Tales:
① The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.
② Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.
③ Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.
17 In the middle ages, what cultures began to merge？
Classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合). It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.
Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？
1、During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.
2、The Christian church continued to gain widespread power and influence.
3、In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years.
4、It shaped people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.
How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages?
1、feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.
2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners, the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners, but they still had freedom, they were called freemen.
3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners, and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.
4、In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.
5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散) government.
6、As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.
What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture?
(What is the great significance of the Crusades?)
1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)
2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制)
3、Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire for wealth or power began to overshadow their religious ideals.
4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century, universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字), algebra (代数), and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.
5、As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in
western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments.
How did literature develop in the middle ages?
1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.
2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy: (但丁与神曲)
① His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.
② The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.
③ Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)
3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales: (乔叟与坎特布雷集)
① The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.
②Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer’s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵) the French and Italian styles.
③ Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人
④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.
Division Four：Renaissance and Reformation
1、Renaissance
Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The wo rd “Renaissance” means revival, specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence, was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级), to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.
Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture.
2、In Renaissance literature of Italy, Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.
3、Intellectuals became closely tied up with the rising bourgeoisie. (人文主义兴起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)
4、At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.
(以人为本—人文主义的核心)
5、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.
6、Michelangelo —— David —— Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible, the Genesis ) —— Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶) —— Moses (摩西)
7、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)
He painted his Madonnas in different postures against different backgrounds.
8、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派). Plato and Aristotle engaged in argument.
9、Titian —— The Venus of Urbino (维纳斯)
10、John Wyclif —— translation of the Bible into English for the first time.
11、Martin Luther —— translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.
12、The reformation get its victory first in England.
13、Reformation
The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.
宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经
14、Calvinism
Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。

15、The national religion established after reformation in England was called The church of England or The Anglican Church.
16、The English Bible was adopted in England after Reformation.
17、Counter-Reformation (反宗教改革)
By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany.
The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle. They mustered their forces, the dedicated Catholic groups, to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements, to bring back its vitality. This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.
18、Francis Bacon introduced Montaigne “Essais” into the English literature.
19、Montaigne was a French humanist known for his “Essais”(Essays).
The representative author of Renaissance in France was Montaigne with his famous work Essais. The representative novelist of Renaissance in Spain was Cervantes with his famous work Do Quixote, which marked European culture entry into a new stage. (歧视文学作品)
20、Renaissance in Germany:
Dürer —— The Four Horsemen of Apocalpse
—— Knight, Death and the Devil
21、文艺复兴影响到达英国晚的原因：The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world trade.
22、在英国达到文艺复兴高潮的第一个原因：It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English.
William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More.
第二个原因：The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability on the one hand and economic prosperity on the other.
23、England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization (殖民扩张) and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday (鼎盛) of capitalist development.
24、William Shakespeare
悲剧—→ Hamlet (哈姆雷特), Othello (奥赛罗), King Lear (李尔王), Macbeth (麦克白)
喜剧—→ As You Like It and Twelfth Night (第十二夜)
25、Copernicus (哥白尼): —→ C entric (日心说)
Which was proved by Kepler and Galieo? Centric (日心说)
26、Dante: The equality of the divine power and the secular power.
What is the great significance of the reformation?
(What positive influence does the reformation exert on world culture?)
1、The Roman Catholic Church was never the international court (法院) to which all rulers and states were to be morally responsible for.
2、Economically, peasants all over Europe had no need to pay a good amount of their gains (利益) to the Pope.
3、In educational and cultural matters, the monopoly (垄断) of the church was broken.
4、In religion, Protestantism brought into being different forms of Christianity to challenge (挑战) the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church.
5、In language, the dominant position of Latin had to give way to the national languages as a result of various translations of the Bible into the vernacular.
6、In spirit, absolute obedience (盲从) became out-molded (不复存在) and the spirit of quest (探索), debate (争论), was ushered in by the reformists.
What contribution did the Renaissance make to the world culture?
1、The Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a way not possible under the medieval Church’s dispensation.
2、The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow. (给…以致命打击)
Division Five
The Seventeenth Century
1、The first time to look at men’s place in the Universe started in the 17th century.
2、In modernism, men’s position in the universe was looked at in a fresh new way.
3、The outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of men’s place in the universe.(人在宇宙中的位置)
4、The 17th century philosophy was focus on materialist in nature.
5、17th century Science: ☆physics ☆mathematics ☆chemistry biology psychology
6、The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the 17th century.
7、Kepler’s Laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation
8、the laws of gravitation (万有引力的内容):
the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all the other bodies (天体) in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is call gravitation.
9、Francis Bacon’s works
—→ The Advancement of Learning
—→ The New Atlantis
—→ The Novum Organum (New Method)
—→ Essays (散文集)
Essays are Bacon’s most widely read work，58 essays were included.
10、Francis Bacon
① Knowledge is power. (知识就是力量)
② Virtue is like precious odours — most fragrant when they are incensed or crushed.
品德像宝贵的气味－当被压碎或焚香时很芳香
③ Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed (大致浏览), and some few to be chewed and digested.(翻翻而已)
④ Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man.(纯粹的人) 读书可以使人成竹在胸
⑤ Histories make men wise. (学史可以使人明智)
⑥Wives are young men’s mistresses (情人), companions (伴侣) for middleage, and old men’s nurses.(照顾人的人)
11、Tomas Hobbes —→ Leviathan
12、Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.
13、Hobbes —→ abso lute Monarchy (君主制)
Locke —→ Constitutional Monarchy (君主立宪制)
14、The English Revolution is also called Bourgeoisie Revolution.
15、Democracy (民主的体现是) —→ Parliament (议会)
（希腊民主的体现是公民大会）
16、1689, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the English Parliament (议会).
17、Milton —→ Paradise Lost (失乐园)
The fall of men (圣经的旧约)
Satan
18、Theory of Knowledge认知论
Descartes employed methodic doubt (置疑方法论) with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable (不容置疑的) truth. I doubt, therefore I think: I think, therefore I am. Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind . Descartes believed that they are not dependable.
19、Classicism (新古典主义)
Classicism implies the revival of the forms and traditions of the ancient world, a return to works of old Greek literature from Homer to Plato and Aristotle. But French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival. It intended to produce a literature, French to the core (以法语为中心), which was worthy of Greek and classical ideals. This neoclassicism reached its climax in France in the 17th century.(代表：莫里哀和德国的歌德•席勒)
20、French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival (并非古典主义的复苏).
21、Rationalism was believed to be able to discover the best principles of human conduct and the universal principles of natural laws. Here Descartes provided the philosophical foundation for the French neoclassicism.
22、Molière (莫里哀) —→ The best representative of French neoclassicism.
Why do we say the 17th century is a transitional period from middle ages to the modern times?
1、This advance began in science, in astronomy，physics and pure mathematics , owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes.
2、The outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of
men’s place in the universe.
3、The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie, and other chasses.
4、The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the 17th century.
What is the theory of the Social Contract, according to the Hobbes?
1、It is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish (处罚).
2、Commonwealth, in Latin, Civitas (共有财产).
3、To escape anarchy (无政府状态), men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign (君主). In return for conferring all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain peace and security .
4、The powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only be the centralization (中央集权) of authority (权利) in one person that the evil can be avoided.
5、As to the form of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.(主张君主制)
6、Government was not created by God, but by men themselves.
What is John Locke’s Social Contract?
1、Society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, and therefore, society is natural to man.
2、The institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent (赞同) of those who are incorporated into (与…融为一体) political society and subject themselves to government.(人要完全屈服于政府的统治)
3、Locke emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent (同意) to submit (服从) to the will of the majority (大多数人的意志) and that the will of the majority must prevail.
4、Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.(是社会契约的签约方), If he violates the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved.(有效地取消), This idea was welcomed by the Americans during the American Revolution and the bourgeoisie revolution in England.(北美独立战争和英国资产阶级革命)
What is the great significant of the English Revolution?
1、It was the first time that capitalism has defeated absolute monarchy (君主专制) in history.
2、The English Revolution marked that the modern times are approaching.
3、After the English Revolution the constitutional monarchy (君主立宪制) has come into being as well as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Right established the supremacy (至高无上的权利) of the Parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England. The Bill of Rights limited the Sovereign’s power (王权) in certain important directions.
Division Six
The Age of Englightment
Enlightenment
Enlightement was an intellectual movement originating in France, which attracted widespread。