b语义学第二讲 涵义与指称

• The relationship by with language hooks onto the world is usually called reference.
• (Saeed, 2000:12)
• Reference is a context-dependent aspect of utterance-meaning: it is a relation that holds between speakers and what what they are talking about on particular occasions. (Lyons, 2000: 294) • The referential range of referring expressions is fixed by their meaning in the language (i.e., by their sense and denotation). But their actual reference depends upon a variety of contextual factors.
• The SENSE of of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. • (Hurford & Heasley, 1983: 28)
Fire: the flames, light and heat, and often smoke, that are produced when something burns.
What is reference?
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the nonlinguistic world of experience.
Saul Kripke
• 提出了固定指称词和非固定指称词的区别。 专名是固定指称词，可以在一切可能的世 界指称同一对象，某些摹状词也可以作为 固定指称词，比如“25的平方根”。但大 部分的摹状词都是非固定指称词，不能起 到固定某个对象的作用。
Peter Strawson
• 反对用逻辑来解释日常语言的使用，而是从语言 的使用来解释语言的意义和指称。 • 反对罗素将摹状词和逻辑专名区分开来，认为罗 素混淆了语言和语言的使用。 • 一种语言形式有多种用法，要在使用的语境中加 以分析，并且由语境来决定该语言形式是否用作 指称。 • 主张语境论，即强调在确定专名、通名或摹状词 的指称对象时，必须结合它在被使用时的各种不 同语境。 • 意义是语词的功能，能指是语词使用的功能。
• • • •
Gottlob Frege (On Sense and Reference) Equality: a = a; a = b (statements) a relation between objects? a relation between names or signs of objects? • Cognitive value: a priori - a posterior; analytic-synthetic ;Mode of presentation/designation • The morning star is the evening star. (Venus) • The celestial body most distant from the Earth.
语义学第二讲
Sense & Reference 涵义与指称
What is sense?
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.
火攻
Variable reference: same referring expression, different referents
e.g. My cat is there. my cat: Susan’s cat, John’s cat…
constant reference: the same referent in any context e.g. the sun, the earth, the moon; China, Japan, Halley’s Comet
Co-reference: different expressions, the same thing or person
e.g. the Morning Star the Evening Star Planet Venus
中国 华夏
our motherland
九州
The Prime Minister of Britain in 1985
• 所有含非限定性摹状词的语句都含有一 个命题函项，如 “我遇见了x且x是人” 就是“我遇见了一个人”的命题函项。 Mx 且 Px • “我遇见了一只独角兽“，该命题之所以 有意义，是因为它与“我遇见了一个人” 有相同的命题函项。 • 专名的指称对象是由摹状词决定的，专 名的意义取决于它所表达的个体是否存 在。 • 专名是直接指称，摹状词是间接指称。
• The semantic link between elements within the vocabulary system is an aspect of their sense, or meaning.
• (Saeed, 2000:12)
•Words derive their value from their • position within the language system.
• The sense and reference of an entire declarative sentence • The morning star is a body illuminated by the • sun. • The evening star is a body illuminated by the • sun. • Sense, reference, or thought? • 直陈句的指称是它的真值(truth value),直陈 句的涵义是它包含的思想。
e.g. Xu Ning Yun
Gottlob Frege 德国
Bertrand Russell 英国
Saul Kripke 美国
Peter Frederick Strawson 英国
Gottlob Frege
• 专名(proper name)不仅有指称，也有涵 义。 • 专名和通名(general name) • 专名是指任何单一对象的表达式，无论 词还是复合符号，都是专名。”中国最 高的山峰”、“马克思” 。 • 专名的涵义就是所指对象的呈现方式， 即所指对象的描述方式。 • 专名的指称是由其涵义决定的。
Some words may have sense but no reference, as in the case of some terms for the imaginary things.
e. Biblioteka Baidu. the first woman walking on the Mars.
Some words may have no sense but certainly have reference, as in the case of proper names, which may be used to refer to some particular object in the world, but it cannot be said to have sense.
The head of the Conservative Party in 1982
The Iron Lady
relationship
Sense and reference are interdependent, because one would not normally know the one without having at least some knowledge of the other.
• In talking of sense, we deal with relationships inside the language; in talking of reference we deal with the relationships between language and the world. (Hurford & Heasley, 1983: 25)
Bertrand Russell
• 区分专名（ proper names）与摹状词 • （ definite descriptions） • 限定摹状词(definite descriptions)、不定 摹状词(indefinite descriptions) • 非限定摹状词含有多个命题函项，它的指 称是不确定的；而限定摹状词有唯一的明 确指称，指称的实体不存在的情况下为空 指称。
• The sense of an expression may be defined as the set, or network, of sense-relations that hold between it and other expressions of the same language. • (Lyons, 2000: 80) • Sense is a matter of interlexical and intralingual relations: that is to say, of relations which hold between a lexical expression and one or more other lexical expressions in the same language.